Glossary

Key terms used throughout The History of Appalachia: Mountains, People, and Power. Terms are organized alphabetically with chapter references in parentheses.

A

Absentee ownership. A pattern in which the land, timber, and mineral wealth of Appalachia is owned by corporations or individuals who do not live in the region, extracting profits while bearing none of the social or environmental costs. Absentee ownership became the dominant economic structure during industrialization and persists in modified forms today. (Ch. 15, 18, 23, 32, 41)

Adena culture. A pre-Columbian Native American culture centered in the Ohio Valley (approximately 1000 BCE to 200 CE), known for elaborate burial mounds, earthworks, and long-distance trade. Adena sites are found throughout the northern Appalachian region. (Ch. 2)

Affrilachian. A term coined by poet Frank X Walker in 1991 to name and celebrate the experience of Black Appalachians. The Affrilachian Poets, founded in Lexington, Kentucky, have become a major force in Appalachian literature. (Ch. 28, 40)

Alleghenian orogeny. The final major mountain-building event that created the Appalachian Mountains, occurring approximately 325 to 260 million years ago when the African and North American tectonic plates collided during the formation of Pangaea. The collision folded and thrust existing rock layers into the ridges that define the landscape today. (Ch. 1)

Appalachian Basin. The geological formation underlying much of the Appalachian region, containing the coal, natural gas, and petroleum deposits that shaped the region's industrial history. The basin stretches from New York to Alabama. (Ch. 1, 15, 37)

Appalachian English. The dialect of American English spoken throughout the Appalachian region, characterized by features such as a-prefixing, r-retention, and double modals. Linguists recognize it as a legitimate dialect with traceable historical roots, not "bad" or "incorrect" English. (Ch. 31)

Appalachian Plateau. The westernmost physiographic province of the Appalachian Mountains, characterized by relatively flat terrain deeply dissected by stream erosion into narrow valleys and hollows. The plateau contains the richest coal deposits in the region. (Ch. 1)

Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC). A federal-state partnership created in 1965 under the Appalachian Regional Development Act. The ARC defines Appalachia as a 423-county region spanning thirteen states, from southern New York to northern Mississippi, and funds infrastructure, education, and economic development projects. (Ch. 23, 32, 36)

Appalachian Regional Development Act (1965). Federal legislation establishing the ARC and authorizing highway construction, health facilities, and economic development across the region. The act was a direct product of the War on Poverty. (Ch. 23)

A-prefixing. A grammatical feature of Appalachian English in which the prefix "a-" is attached to present participles (e.g., "he was a-running"). Linguistic analysis traces the feature to Scots-Irish and older English dialects, not to grammatical ignorance. (Ch. 31)

B

Baldwin-Felts Detective Agency. A private detective agency based in Roanoke, Virginia, hired by coal companies to suppress union organizing in the Appalachian coalfields. Baldwin-Felts agents served as mine guards, strikebreakers, and eviction enforcers. Their killing of Matewan Police Chief Sid Hatfield in 1921 triggered the Battle of Blair Mountain. (Ch. 17)

Ballad tradition. The practice of singing narrative songs, many with origins in the British Isles (Child ballads), that was central to Appalachian oral culture for centuries. Ballad collecting by scholars such as Cecil Sharp in the early twentieth century both preserved and distorted these traditions. (Ch. 8, 27)

Band mill. A large sawmill using a continuous band-saw blade, capable of processing enormous volumes of timber. The arrival of band mills in Appalachia in the late nineteenth century enabled industrial-scale clearcutting that devastated mountain forests. (Ch. 18)

Battle of Blair Mountain (1921). The largest armed insurrection in the United States since the Civil War, in which approximately 10,000 armed coal miners marched on Logan County, West Virginia, to organize union mines. Federal troops and private aircraft were deployed against the miners. The battle effectively ended the mine wars but remained largely forgotten until the early twenty-first century. (Ch. 17, 26)

Battle of Kings Mountain (1780). A pivotal American Revolutionary War engagement in which Appalachian frontier militia (the Overmountain Men) defeated a British Loyalist force in South Carolina. The battle is considered a turning point of the southern campaign. (Ch. 10)

Beloved Woman (Ghigau). A title of honor in Cherokee society given to women who demonstrated exceptional wisdom, courage, or service. Beloved Women held significant political authority, including the power to spare condemned prisoners, and sat in council deliberations. (Ch. 3)

Black lung. See Coal workers' pneumoconiosis. (Ch. 21)

Black Lung Association. An organization founded in 1969 by coal miners and their families to advocate for recognition of and compensation for coal workers' pneumoconiosis. The Association's activism led to the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969. (Ch. 21, 26)

Blair Mountain. See Battle of Blair Mountain. (Ch. 17, 26)

Blue Ridge Parkway. A 469-mile scenic highway connecting Shenandoah National Park to the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, built by the Civilian Conservation Corps and other New Deal labor programs between 1935 and 1987. Construction displaced numerous mountain families and communities. (Ch. 22)

Blue Ridge Province. One of the five physiographic provinces of the Appalachian Mountains, characterized by the highest peaks in eastern North America (including Mount Mitchell at 6,684 feet). The Blue Ridge forms the eastern escarpment of the mountains. (Ch. 1)

Broad form deed. A legal instrument, widely used from the 1880s through the mid-twentieth century, in which surface landowners sold mineral rights beneath their property for pennies per acre. The deeds were interpreted by courts to grant mineral owners the right to destroy the surface to access minerals, effectively dispossessing surface owners of meaningful control over their land. Kentucky's Broad Form Deed Amendment (1988) finally limited this practice. (Ch. 15, 24)

Buffalo Creek disaster (1972). The collapse of a coal waste impoundment dam on Buffalo Creek in Logan County, West Virginia, on February 26, 1972. The flood killed 125 people, injured over 1,100, and left more than 4,000 homeless. The Pittston Coal Company, which maintained the dam, called it "an act of God." (Ch. 26)

C

Camp meeting. A form of outdoor religious revival originating in the early nineteenth century, in which communities gathered for days of preaching, singing, and worship. The Cane Ridge Revival of 1801 in Bourbon County, Kentucky, drew an estimated 10,000 to 25,000 people and launched the camp meeting movement. (Ch. 8)

Camp Solidarity. A tent encampment established during the 1989 Pittston Coal strike in southwest Virginia, serving as a base for striking miners and their supporters. Camp Solidarity drew national and international labor solidarity and became a symbol of the Appalachian resistance tradition. (Ch. 26)

Carboniferous period. The geological period approximately 359 to 299 million years ago during which the vast swamp forests that would become Appalachian coal deposits were formed. The name literally means "coal-bearing." (Ch. 1)

Carter Family. A musical group from Maces Spring, Virginia (A.P., Sara, and Maybelle Carter), who recorded at the Bristol Sessions in 1927 and became foundational figures in country music. Their repertoire drew heavily on Appalachian ballad and gospel traditions. (Ch. 27)

Celtic thesis. The argument, most associated with historian David Hackett Fischer, that Appalachian culture is primarily derived from Scots-Irish (Celtic) cultural patterns brought from the borderlands of Britain and Ireland. The thesis has been critiqued for overstating ethnic homogeneity and ignoring African American, Indigenous, and other influences. (Ch. 5, Appendix C)

Cherokee Nation. The political entity governing the Cherokee people, which by the eighteenth century encompassed a vast territory across the southern Appalachian Mountains. The Cherokee developed sophisticated governance, agricultural, and diplomatic systems. Today, three federally recognized Cherokee entities exist: the Cherokee Nation (Oklahoma), the United Keetoowah Band (Oklahoma), and the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (North Carolina). (Ch. 3, 4, 39)

Cherokee Phoenix. The first Native American newspaper, established in 1828 at New Echota, Georgia, and published in both English and Cherokee using Sequoyah's syllabary. The paper advocated for Cherokee rights and sovereignty before being suppressed during the removal era. (Ch. 3)

Cherokee syllabary. A writing system for the Cherokee language created by Sequoyah (George Gist) around 1821. The syllabary consists of 85 characters, each representing a syllable. Its creation is one of the very few instances in history of an individual creating a complete writing system, and it enabled widespread literacy among the Cherokee within a generation. (Ch. 3)

Child ballads. A collection of 305 traditional English and Scottish ballads compiled by Francis James Child in the late nineteenth century. Many of these ballads survived in Appalachian oral tradition long after falling out of use in Britain, leading early collectors to view the mountains as a repository of ancient song. (Ch. 8, 27)

Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). A New Deal work relief program (1933-1942) that employed young men in conservation and infrastructure projects. CCC camps throughout Appalachia built roads, trails, bridges, fire towers, and facilities in national forests and parks. (Ch. 22)

Coal scrip. A form of private currency issued by coal companies and redeemable only at the company store. Scrip was used instead of or in addition to U.S. currency in company towns, effectively trapping miners in a closed economic system. (Ch. 16)

Coal workers' pneumoconiosis (CWP). An occupational lung disease caused by long-term inhalation of coal dust, commonly known as "black lung." CWP is progressive and incurable, causing fibrosis of lung tissue. The coal industry denied its existence for decades. (Ch. 21)

Company store. A retail establishment owned and operated by the coal company in a company town, often the only place miners could purchase goods. Prices at company stores were typically higher than at independent merchants, and purchases were deducted from miners' wages or paid in scrip. (Ch. 16)

Company town. A community in which virtually all infrastructure — housing, stores, schools, churches, and sometimes law enforcement — was owned and controlled by a single employer, typically a coal company. Company towns dominated the Appalachian coalfields from the 1880s through the 1940s. (Ch. 16)

Coverture. The legal doctrine under which a married woman's legal identity was subsumed under her husband's. Under coverture, women could not own property, enter contracts, or sue in their own names. The doctrine shaped women's legal status in frontier Appalachia. (Ch. 9)

D

Deaths of despair. A term coined by economists Anne Case and Angus Deaton to describe the rising mortality among white working-class Americans from suicide, drug overdose, and alcoholic liver disease. Appalachia has been disproportionately affected. (Ch. 33, 38)

Deerskin trade. A major component of the colonial-era economy in the southern Appalachians, in which Cherokee and other Indigenous peoples traded prepared deerskins to European traders for manufactured goods. The trade altered both Cherokee economic practices and deer populations. (Ch. 3, 7)

E

Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI). A federally recognized tribe of approximately 16,000 members headquartered in Cherokee, North Carolina, on the Qualla Boundary. The Eastern Band descends from Cherokee who avoided or evaded the Trail of Tears removal and remained in the mountains. (Ch. 4, 39)

Elizabethan English myth. The debunked popular belief that Appalachian English preserves the language of Shakespeare's England. While Appalachian dialect does retain some archaic features, linguists have demonstrated that it is a complex dialect shaped by multiple influences, not a frozen relic. (Ch. 31)

F

Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act (1969). Landmark legislation establishing mandatory health and safety standards for coal mines, including dust suppression requirements and compensation for miners disabled by black lung disease. The act was a direct result of the Black Lung movement and the Farmington Mine disaster of 1968. (Ch. 21)

Foxfire project. A student-led cultural documentation project begun in 1966 at the Rabun Gap-Nacoochee School in Rabun County, Georgia, by teacher Eliot Wigginton. Students interviewed elders about traditional Appalachian skills and knowledge, producing a magazine and bestselling book series. Foxfire became a model for place-based education nationwide. (Ch. 30)

Freedmen's Bureau. The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, a federal agency (1865-1872) that assisted formerly enslaved people during Reconstruction. In Appalachia, the Bureau established schools and mediated labor disputes, though its impact was limited in remote mountain counties. (Ch. 12)

Frontier Nursing Service (FNS). A healthcare organization founded in 1925 by Mary Breckinridge in Leslie County, Kentucky, deploying nurse-midwives on horseback to serve remote mountain communities. The FNS dramatically reduced maternal and infant mortality and became a model for rural healthcare delivery. (Ch. 38)

G

Ginseng trade. The export of wild American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) from Appalachian forests to Asian markets, one of the earliest connections between mountain communities and the global economy. The trade has continued from the colonial era to the present, though overharvesting has reduced wild populations. (Ch. 7)

Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The most visited national park in the United States, established in 1934 on land in Tennessee and North Carolina that was home to numerous mountain communities. Unlike western parks created on federal land, the Smokies required purchasing or condemning private holdings, displacing hundreds of families. (Ch. 22)

Great Wagon Road. The primary migration route into the Appalachian backcountry during the colonial and early national periods, running from Philadelphia south through the Shenandoah Valley to the Piedmont of the Carolinas. Most Scotch-Irish, German, and English settlers entered the mountains via this corridor. (Ch. 5)

H

Harlan County, Kentucky. An eastern Kentucky county that serves as a microcosm of Appalachian history: Cherokee territory, coal kingdom, site of violent labor conflicts ("Bloody Harlan"), War on Poverty target, opioid crisis epicenter, and ongoing community resilience. (Throughout)

Harm reduction. A public health approach to drug use that prioritizes reducing negative consequences rather than demanding abstinence as a precondition for assistance. In Appalachia, harm reduction strategies include needle exchange programs, naloxone distribution, and medication-assisted treatment. (Ch. 33)

Highlander Folk School. An adult education center founded by Myles Horton and Don West in Grundy County, Tennessee, in 1932. Highlander trained labor organizers, civil rights leaders (including Rosa Parks), and community activists, linking education to social change. It continues today as the Highlander Research and Education Center. (Ch. 25, 26)

Hillbilly Elegy. A 2016 memoir by J.D. Vance describing his upbringing in a working-class Appalachian family in Middletown, Ohio. The book became a bestseller and was widely read as an explanation for Appalachian poverty and the 2016 election. It was extensively criticized by Appalachian scholars, including Elizabeth Catte, for promoting a culture-of-poverty narrative. (Ch. 34, 35)

Hillbilly Highway. A colloquial term for U.S. Route 23 and other migration corridors along which millions of Appalachians traveled to industrial cities in the Midwest, particularly Detroit, Cincinnati, and Chicago, between the 1940s and 1970s. (Ch. 20)

Holler (hollow). The local pronunciation and spelling of "hollow," referring to a narrow valley between ridges. Hollows served as the basic settlement unit in much of Appalachia, typically containing one extended family or a small cluster of families. The geography of hollows shaped everything from agriculture to social networks to political organization. (Ch. 1, 5, 16)

Hopewell interaction sphere. A network of trade, cultural exchange, and shared ceremonial practices connecting Indigenous peoples across eastern North America from approximately 200 BCE to 500 CE. Appalachian communities participated in this network, trading mica, copper, and other materials. (Ch. 2)

I

Indian Removal Act (1830). Federal legislation signed by President Andrew Jackson authorizing the forced relocation of southeastern Native nations to lands west of the Mississippi River. The act led directly to the Trail of Tears and the dispossession of Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole peoples. (Ch. 4)

Inflation Reduction Act (2022). Federal legislation containing significant provisions for clean energy investment, including incentives for renewable energy development on former mine lands. The act has implications for Appalachian energy transition efforts. (Ch. 37)

Internal colonialism. A theoretical framework, applied to Appalachia by scholars such as Helen Lewis and John Gaventa, arguing that the region's relationship to the national economy resembles that of a colonized territory: outside capital controls resources and governance, wealth flows outward, and local populations bear the costs of extraction without receiving proportional benefits. (Ch. 23, 41, Appendix C)

J

Just transition. A framework for ensuring that the shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy does not abandon the workers and communities whose labor powered the old energy economy. In Appalachia, just transition proposals include mine-land reclamation for solar, workforce retraining, economic diversification, and direct investment in coalfield communities. (Ch. 32, 37)

K

Kanawha Valley. A major valley in present-day West Virginia, site of significant salt production using enslaved labor in the antebellum period and later a center of the chemical industry. The valley illustrates the continuity of extraction across different industries. (Ch. 6, 7)

Karst topography. A landscape formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks (primarily limestone), characterized by sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage systems. Karst features are common in the Ridge and Valley Province and influence water resources and land use. (Ch. 1)

L

Land agent. A representative of corporate interests (timber or mining companies) who traveled through Appalachian communities in the late nineteenth century purchasing land and mineral rights, often from owners who did not fully understand the legal implications. Land agents were the advance force of industrial extraction. (Ch. 15, 18)

Leather britches. A traditional Appalachian method of preserving green beans by stringing them on thread and hanging them to dry, then rehydrating and cooking them in winter. The term illustrates the preservation knowledge that sustained mountain communities. (Ch. 30)

Local color movement. A literary genre of the late nineteenth century in which writers depicted the customs, dialect, and scenery of specific American regions for a national audience. Appalachian local color writing both introduced the region to outsiders and established many enduring stereotypes. (Ch. 14, 35)

M

Martin County sludge spill (2000). The rupture of a coal slurry impoundment in Martin County, Kentucky, releasing approximately 300 million gallons of coal waste into local waterways. The spill was thirty times larger than the Exxon Valdez oil disaster but received comparatively little national attention. (Ch. 24)

Matewan Massacre (1920). A gunfight in the town of Matewan, West Virginia, between Baldwin-Felts agents attempting to evict striking miners and Matewan Police Chief Sid Hatfield and armed miners. The incident killed ten people, including the mayor and two Baldwin-Felts agents, and escalated the mine wars. (Ch. 17)

McDowell County, West Virginia. A county in the southern West Virginia coalfields that was once the wealthiest in the state (during the coal boom) and is now among the poorest counties in the United States. McDowell County's arc from wealth to poverty illustrates the consequences of extraction without reinvestment. (Throughout)

Medication-Assisted Treatment (MAT). The use of medications (methadone, buprenorphine, naltrexone) in combination with counseling to treat opioid use disorder. Access to MAT has been severely limited in rural Appalachia due to provider shortages and stigma. (Ch. 33)

Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). The federal agency, housed within the Department of Labor, responsible for enforcing safety and health standards in the nation's mines. MSHA was created by the Federal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977 and has been both praised for improving safety and criticized for inadequate enforcement. (Ch. 21)

Monongah Mine disaster (1907). An explosion at the Fairmont Coal Company's mines in Monongah, West Virginia, on December 6, 1907, killing at least 362 miners (the official count; the actual toll was likely higher). It remains the worst mining disaster in American history and led to the creation of the U.S. Bureau of Mines. (Ch. 21)

Mother Jones (Mary Harris Jones, 1837-1930). A labor organizer who became the most prominent figure in the Appalachian mine wars, organizing miners in West Virginia, Colorado, and other coalfields. Her inflammatory speeches and fearless confrontation of mine operators and government officials made her "the most dangerous woman in America." (Ch. 17)

Mountain Valley Pipeline (MVP). A 303-mile natural gas pipeline running from northwestern West Virginia to southern Virginia through Appalachian terrain, the subject of extensive legal challenges and community opposition since its proposal in 2014. Opponents view the pipeline as a continuation of the extraction pattern. (Ch. 37)

Mountaintop removal (MTR). A form of surface coal mining in which the summit of a mountain is blasted away with explosives to expose coal seams beneath, with the resulting rubble dumped into adjacent valleys ("valley fills"). MTR has destroyed hundreds of mountains and buried thousands of miles of streams in Appalachia. (Ch. 24)

N

Naloxone (Narcan). An opioid antagonist medication that can reverse opioid overdose. Distribution of naloxone to first responders and community members has been a critical harm reduction strategy in Appalachia during the opioid crisis. (Ch. 33)

Neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). A condition in newborns caused by withdrawal from opioids to which they were exposed in the womb. Appalachian hospitals have experienced dramatically elevated rates of NAS during the opioid crisis. (Ch. 33)

New Deal. The set of federal programs, agencies, and reforms enacted under President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1939) in response to the Great Depression. In Appalachia, the New Deal brought the TVA, CCC, rural electrification, national parks, and roads, fundamentally transforming the region's infrastructure while also displacing communities. (Ch. 22)

New Echota. The capital of the Cherokee Nation from 1825 to 1838, located in present-day Gordon County, Georgia. The Treaty of New Echota (1835), signed by a minority Cherokee faction without authorization, provided the legal pretext for the Trail of Tears. (Ch. 3, 4)

New River. One of the oldest rivers in the world, flowing northward through Virginia and West Virginia. The New River's antiquity (predating the Appalachian Mountains themselves) makes it a signature geological feature of the region. (Ch. 1)

O

Oconaluftee Citizen Indians. Cherokee who avoided removal by living on land purchased outside the Cherokee Nation's boundaries, in the Oconaluftee River valley of western North Carolina. Under the advocacy of William Holland Thomas, they formed the nucleus of what became the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. (Ch. 4, 39)

Out-migration. The large-scale departure of Appalachian residents, peaking between the 1940s and 1970s, driven by mechanization of mining, agricultural decline, and economic opportunity elsewhere. An estimated three million people left the region during this period, hollowing out communities. (Ch. 20)

Overmountain Men. Appalachian frontier militia who crossed the Blue Ridge Mountains to defeat British Loyalist forces at the Battle of Kings Mountain in 1780. The term reflects early Appalachian identity as a people defined by their relationship to the mountain landscape. (Ch. 10)

OxyContin. An extended-release opioid painkiller manufactured by Purdue Pharma, introduced in 1996 and aggressively marketed to Appalachian healthcare providers. OxyContin became the catalyst of the opioid epidemic. Purdue Pharma pleaded guilty to federal charges related to its marketing practices. (Ch. 33)

P

Peneplain theory. The geological concept that the Appalachian Mountains were once worn down by erosion to a nearly flat plain, then uplifted and re-eroded into their current form. The theory helps explain why the oldest mountains in North America are not the tallest. (Ch. 1)

Physiographic province. A region defined by a distinctive combination of landform type, rock type, and geological structure. The Appalachian Mountains comprise five provinces: the Appalachian Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Blue Ridge, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain. (Ch. 1)

Pill mill. An informal term for medical clinics or pharmacies that prescribe or dispense opioids in excessive quantities without legitimate medical purpose. Pill mills proliferated in Appalachia during the early opioid crisis. (Ch. 33)

Pittston Coal strike (1989-1990). A major labor action in which UMWA miners struck the Pittston Coal Company in southwest Virginia over health benefits for retired miners and widows. The strike, supported by the Camp Solidarity encampment, lasted nearly a year and drew international solidarity. (Ch. 26)

Poverty porn. Media content that exploits images of poverty for emotional impact without providing context, structural analysis, or the perspectives of the people depicted. Appalachia has been a frequent subject of poverty porn in photojournalism, documentary film, and television. (Ch. 35)

Proclamation Line of 1763. A boundary established by the British Crown along the crest of the Appalachian Mountains, prohibiting colonial settlement west of the line to reduce conflict with Native nations. The proclamation was widely violated by frontier settlers and proved unenforceable. (Ch. 4)

Q

Qualla Boundary. The approximately 56,000-acre land trust in western North Carolina that serves as the homeland of the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. The Qualla Boundary is not a reservation in the traditional sense; its land was purchased, not set aside by treaty. (Ch. 4, 39)

R

Ramps. Wild leeks (Allium tricoccum) native to Appalachian forests, traditionally harvested in spring as one of the first fresh greens available after winter. Ramp festivals are a significant cultural tradition. The recent popularity of ramps in upscale restaurants has raised concerns about overharvesting and cultural appropriation. (Ch. 30)

Redneck. Originally a term associated with the red bandanas worn by unionized coal miners during the mine wars (particularly at Blair Mountain), signifying labor solidarity. The term's later transformation into a class-based slur illustrates how labor history has been obscured. (Ch. 17)

Ridge and Valley Province. A physiographic province of the Appalachian Mountains characterized by long, parallel ridges separated by narrow valleys, created by the folding and differential erosion of rock layers. The province's terrain channeled settlement, transportation, and economic activity along valley corridors. (Ch. 1)

Ruin porn. A genre of photography and media that aestheticizes the ruins of deindustrialization — abandoned mines, collapsing company towns, empty storefronts — without engaging with the human stories or structural causes behind decline. (Ch. 35)

Rural electrification. The extension of electrical service to rural areas, accomplished in Appalachia primarily through the Rural Electrification Administration (REA, established 1935) and the TVA. Before electrification, most mountain homes lacked electricity, refrigeration, and electric lighting. (Ch. 22)

S

Sacrifice zone. A geographic area that has been permanently damaged by environmental degradation, resource extraction, or industrial pollution, typically inhabited by low-income or marginalized communities. The concept has been applied to Appalachian coalfields, particularly areas affected by mountaintop removal. (Ch. 24, 37, 41)

Sago Mine disaster (2006). An explosion at the Sago Mine in Upshur County, West Virginia, on January 2, 2006, that killed twelve of thirteen trapped miners. The disaster renewed national attention to mine safety failures and MSHA's regulatory capacity. (Ch. 21)

Scotch-Irish (Ulster Scots). Descendants of Scottish Lowlanders who migrated to the Ulster province of Ireland in the seventeenth century and subsequently emigrated to the American colonies in the eighteenth century. The Scotch-Irish became the largest single ethnic group in the Appalachian backcountry, though they were never the only group. (Ch. 5)

Sequoyah (George Gist, c. 1770-1843). A Cherokee silversmith who created the Cherokee syllabary around 1821, one of the only instances in recorded history of an individual creating a complete writing system. His achievement enabled rapid Cherokee literacy and the establishment of the Cherokee Phoenix newspaper. (Ch. 3)

Settlement schools. Educational institutions established in Appalachia by Northern philanthropic and religious organizations in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including Hindman Settlement School (1902) and Pine Mountain Settlement School (1913). The schools provided education and social services while simultaneously imposing outside cultural values. (Ch. 14, 25)

Shape-note singing. A musical tradition using shaped noteheads to indicate pitch, facilitating sight-reading for people without formal musical training. Shape-note singing (including Sacred Harp) became deeply embedded in Appalachian religious and community life. (Ch. 8, 27)

Shelton Laurel massacre (1863). The killing of thirteen suspected Unionist men and boys by Confederate soldiers in Madison County, North Carolina. The massacre illustrates the brutality of the internal civil war fought within Appalachian communities. (Ch. 11)

Splash dam. A temporary dam built across a stream during timber operations, behind which logs were accumulated. When the dam was released, the resulting flood carried logs downstream to the mill. Splash dams caused severe environmental damage to mountain streams. (Ch. 18)

State of Franklin. A short-lived autonomous territory (1784-1788) in what is now eastern Tennessee, created when settlers attempted to form their own state independent of North Carolina. The failed experiment reflects early Appalachian tensions with distant governmental authority. (Ch. 10)

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA, 1977). Federal legislation establishing environmental standards for surface coal mining and requiring reclamation of mined land. The act created the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement. Critics argue that SMCRA's provisions have been inadequately enforced, particularly regarding mountaintop removal. (Ch. 24)

T

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). A federally owned corporation established in 1933 to manage the Tennessee River system through dam construction, flood control, electricity generation, and regional economic development. The TVA brought electricity and economic activity to much of Appalachia but also displaced thousands of families and communities. (Ch. 22)

Three Sisters. The Indigenous agricultural system of planting corn, beans, and squash together, in which each plant benefits the others (corn provides structure for beans, beans fix nitrogen for corn, squash shades soil to retain moisture). Cherokee and other Appalachian Indigenous peoples practiced Three Sisters agriculture extensively. (Ch. 2, 3, 30)

Trail of Tears (1838-1839). The forced removal of approximately 16,000 Cherokee from their homeland in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma), during which an estimated 4,000 people died from exposure, disease, and starvation. The Trail of Tears is the foundational act of dispossession that made "white Appalachia" possible. (Ch. 4)

Treaty of New Echota (1835). A treaty signed by a minority faction of Cherokee leaders (the Treaty Party) ceding all Cherokee lands east of the Mississippi to the United States. The treaty was opposed by the majority of the Cherokee Nation, including Principal Chief John Ross, but was ratified by the U.S. Senate and used as the legal basis for removal. (Ch. 4)

Treaty of Sycamore Shoals (1775). A controversial land transaction in which the Transylvania Company, led by Richard Henderson, purchased approximately 20 million acres of Cherokee land in present-day Kentucky and Tennessee. The Cherokee leader Dragging Canoe warned the buyers they were purchasing a "dark and bloody ground." (Ch. 4)

Tsali. A Cherokee man who, according to tradition, sacrificed himself during the removal era to allow other Cherokee to remain in the mountains. While the historical details are debated, Tsali's story has become central to Eastern Band Cherokee identity and the founding narrative of the Qualla Boundary. (Ch. 4, 39)

U

United Mine Workers of America (UMWA). A labor union representing coal miners, founded in 1890. The UMWA organized extensively in the Appalachian coalfields, leading strikes, negotiating contracts, and fighting for safety regulations. The union's interracial organizing was both groundbreaking and limited. Under John L. Lewis, the UMWA became one of the most powerful unions in America. (Ch. 17, 19, 21, 26)

Upper Big Branch Mine disaster (2010). An explosion at the Upper Big Branch Mine in Raleigh County, West Virginia, on April 5, 2010, killing twenty-nine miners. An investigation revealed systematic safety violations by Massey Energy and regulatory failures by MSHA. CEO Don Blankenship was later convicted of conspiracy to violate mine safety standards. (Ch. 21)

V

Valley fill. The practice of dumping mining overburden (rock and soil removed to access coal seams) into adjacent valleys, permanently burying streams and destroying ecosystems. Valley fills are the most environmentally destructive aspect of mountaintop removal mining. (Ch. 24)

VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America). A federal program created in 1965 as a domestic counterpart to the Peace Corps, deploying volunteers to work in impoverished communities. VISTA workers in Appalachia played controversial roles, sometimes supporting community organizing that challenged local power structures. (Ch. 23)

W

War on Coal. A political framing used primarily by Republican politicians and coal industry advocates to characterize environmental regulations, particularly those enacted during the Obama administration, as an attack on Appalachian communities and livelihoods. Critics argue the framing obscures the market forces (natural gas competition, automation) primarily responsible for coal's decline. (Ch. 32, 34)

War on Poverty. President Lyndon B. Johnson's legislative initiative (1964-1968) aimed at reducing poverty in the United States. Appalachia was central to the War on Poverty, with LBJ's visit to Martin County, Kentucky, in 1964 serving as a symbolic launch. The effort produced the ARC, VISTA, and community action programs, with mixed results. (Ch. 23)

Weeks Act (1911). Federal legislation authorizing the U.S. government to purchase private land for national forests in the eastern United States. The act led to the creation of major Appalachian national forests (George Washington, Jefferson, Monongahela, Pisgah, Nantahala) and was motivated in part by the devastating floods caused by industrial-scale timber clearcutting. (Ch. 18)

Whiskey Rebellion (1794). An armed uprising in western Pennsylvania against a federal excise tax on whiskey, which served as currency in the frontier economy. President George Washington sent 13,000 troops to suppress the rebellion. The episode established a pattern of tension between mountain communities and federal authority. (Ch. 10)

William Holland Thomas (1805-1893). A white trader and state legislator who was adopted into the Cherokee Nation and used his political influence and personal funds to purchase land for the Cherokee who avoided removal. Thomas is a pivotal figure in the survival of what became the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians. (Ch. 4, 39)

Worcester v. Georgia (1832). A U.S. Supreme Court case in which Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that the Cherokee Nation was a sovereign entity in which Georgia law had no force. President Andrew Jackson reportedly defied the ruling, and removal proceeded regardless. The case remains a landmark in Indigenous sovereignty law. (Ch. 4)

Y

Yellow Dog Democrat. A term for a voter who would vote for a Democratic candidate under any circumstances — "even a yellow dog." Appalachia was solidly Yellow Dog Democrat from the New Deal era through the late twentieth century, a loyalty rooted in the union movement, the New Deal, and the War on Poverty. The region's partisan realignment since the 1990s is one of the most dramatic in American political history. (Ch. 34)

This glossary covers the major terms introduced across all 42 chapters. For additional terms and extended definitions, see the Index and the relevant chapter discussions.