Chapter 2 Quiz: Memory Architecture and Its Implications

Close the chapter before you begin. If you haven't read it yet, you're creating a desirable difficulty — make your best guesses, then go read, then come back.

Question 1

According to Nelson Cowan's updated research on working memory capacity, approximately how many "chunks" of information can working memory hold simultaneously?

A) 7 ± 2 B) 4 ± 1 C) 10–12 D) 2–3

Correct answer: B

Explanation: George Miller's original "magical number seven" has been revised downward by subsequent research. Cowan's work, which controlled for chunking artifacts in earlier studies, suggests working memory holds approximately four items or "chunks." The practical significance is that working memory is even more of a bottleneck than Miller's classic figure suggested. The capacity of a "chunk," however, can expand as expertise develops.

Question 2

According to Bjork's New Theory of Disuse, which of the following statements about storage strength is correct?

A) Storage strength increases and decreases like retrieval strength B) Storage strength only increases — it never decreases C) Storage strength is another name for retrieval strength D) Storage strength is relevant only for short-term memory

Correct answer: B

Explanation: Bjork's theory distinguishes storage strength (how well-embedded information is in long-term memory) from retrieval strength (how easily accessible it is right now). Storage strength only increases — once you've deeply learned something, that learning doesn't disappear, even if retrieval strength decays dramatically. This explains why former language learners regain proficiency much faster than true beginners: the storage is intact; only retrieval needs to be rebuilt.

Question 3

Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve was derived primarily from experiments with:

A) Foreign language vocabulary B) Mathematical formulas C) Nonsense syllables D) Meaningful prose passages

Correct answer: C

Explanation: Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables (meaningless consonant-vowel-consonant combinations like "DAX" or "BUP") because he wanted to study "pure" memory without the confound of pre-existing associations. This means his forgetting curve represents the worst case — material with no semantic hooks. Real educational material, which can connect to existing knowledge, is retained substantially better. The qualitative shape of the curve (rapid early forgetting, decelerating decay) holds for real material, but the specific percentages are inflated compared to meaningful content.

Question 4

The "levels of processing" model by Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposes that memory trace strength is primarily determined by:

A) How many times information is rehearsed B) The depth of processing — structural, phonemic, or semantic C) The time of day when encoding occurs D) The emotional state during encoding

Correct answer: B

Explanation: Craik and Lockhart's model is one of the most influential frameworks in memory research. Their key finding was that what matters for retention is not repetition per se, but the depth of cognitive processing during encoding. Semantic processing — thinking about meaning, making connections, asking why — produces the strongest, most durable memory traces. This is why understanding material is so much more effective for long-term retention than memorizing it by rote.

Question 5

What does it mean to say that memory retrieval is "active reconstruction" rather than "passive playback"?

A) Retrieving memories requires physical movement B) Memories are rebuilt from fragments each time they're accessed, not played back like recordings C) Retrieval takes active concentration but produces exact copies of encoded information D) Only actively learned information can be retrieved; passively absorbed information cannot

Correct answer: B

Explanation: The reconstructive nature of memory is one of the most important and counterintuitive findings of memory research. When you remember something, you're not replaying a stored recording. You're rebuilding the memory from encoded fragments, filling gaps with what your current knowledge tells you "must have been" the case. This is why eyewitness testimony is unreliable, why memories change over time, and — crucially for studying — why the act of retrieval itself modifies and strengthens the memory.

Question 6

Godden and Baddeley's diving experiment demonstrated which memory principle?

A) State-dependent memory — emotional state at encoding affects retrieval B) Context-dependent memory — the environment at encoding becomes a retrieval cue C) The primacy effect — information encountered first is remembered best D) The recency effect — information encountered most recently is remembered best

Correct answer: B

Explanation: Godden and Baddeley had divers learn word lists either underwater or on shore, then tested them in both conditions. Divers recalled significantly more words when tested in the same environment where they learned. The study environment itself gets encoded along with the target information, providing a retrieval cue. The practical implication: don't always study in the same place, because this creates context-dependent memory that works against you in unfamiliar test environments.

Question 7

Which of the following best describes the relationship between storage strength and retrieval strength when you study something you've partially forgotten?

A) Reviewing after forgetting decreases storage strength but increases retrieval strength B) The benefit to storage and retrieval strength is the same whether you review after forgetting or while retrieval strength is still high C) The lower the current retrieval strength, the greater the boost to both storage and retrieval strength from a successful retrieval attempt D) Retrieval strength increases while storage strength remains stable during review

Correct answer: C

Explanation: This is the core implication of Bjork's theory for study strategy. When retrieval strength is still high (you studied recently), practicing retrieval produces only a small benefit because you're not really "reaching" for the memory. When retrieval strength has dropped (you've had some forgetting), a successful retrieval attempt produces a much larger benefit to both storage and retrieval strength. This is the mechanistic explanation for why spaced practice produces better learning than massed practice.

Question 8

What is proactive interference?

A) New memories blocking access to older memories B) Older memories making it harder to learn new, similar information C) Anticipating what you'll need to remember before an exam D) The enhanced encoding that occurs when you expect to be tested

Correct answer: B

Explanation: In proactive interference, "proactive" means "forward-acting" — the older memory acts forward in time to interfere with new learning. The classic example is a old phone number interfering with learning a new one. For studying, proactive interference is why covering similar subjects back-to-back (French then Spanish, statistics then research methods) creates competition in memory. Interleaving with dissimilar material, or leaving a time buffer between similar subjects, reduces this effect.

Question 9

The primary reason the capacity of long-term memory is described as "effectively unlimited" is:

A) Brains can grow new neurons indefinitely to accommodate new memories B) Long-term memories automatically compress to take up less space over time C) No evidence has ever been found of a person who ran out of long-term memory capacity; the bottleneck is retrieval, not storage D) Long-term memory is stored in the body as well as the brain

Correct answer: C

Explanation: This is one of the most important facts about memory for learners to understand. You are not forgetting things because your brain is full. There is no documented case of someone's long-term memory reaching capacity. Forgetting is a retrieval problem, not a storage problem — memories become inaccessible because retrieval pathways weaken over time, not because the storage space is exhausted. This means that in principle, any amount of information can be learned; the constraint is building and maintaining retrieval pathways.

Question 10

In the serial position curve (the result of trying to recall a long list), which items are typically recalled worst?

A) The first items in the list (primacy region) B) The last items in the list (recency region) C) Items in the middle of the list D) Items with the most unusual sounds

Correct answer: C

Explanation: The serial position curve has two peaks: primacy (first items recalled well because they had full working memory capacity available and got encoded into long-term memory) and recency (last items recalled well because they're still in working memory at test time). The middle items miss both advantages and are consistently the worst recalled. For studying, this means the material you cover in the middle of a session is most at risk of being lost — which is a strong argument for explicit review at the end of sessions and for varying what you start and end with.

Question 11

Why does the act of retrieval itself strengthen memory, even when retrieval is unsuccessful?

A) Retrieval failure creates frustration, which heightens arousal and improves subsequent encoding B) The retrieval attempt primes related memory pathways; when the correct answer is subsequently provided, it encodes more deeply than it would have without the prior attempt C) Unsuccessful retrieval leads to more careful rereading afterward D) Retrieval practice improves memory by increasing the total amount of time spent with material

Correct answer: B

Explanation: This is one of the most surprising findings in retrieval practice research. The retrieval attempt — even a failed one — creates a kind of cognitive readiness that makes subsequent encoding dramatically more effective. This is why the testing effect works even for questions you get wrong: the struggle to retrieve, followed by seeing the correct answer, produces stronger memories than simply reading the answer would have without the prior attempt. It's not about time on task — it's about the specific cognitive process triggered by retrieval attempts.

Question 12

Which of the following study habits would best prevent the rapid decay of retrieval strength predicted by the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve?

A) Rereading notes within an hour of the initial study session to catch errors B) Scheduling review sessions at increasing intervals (1 day, 5 days, 2 weeks, 1 month) C) Studying for longer sessions to ensure deep initial encoding D) Studying in the same location each time to maximize context-dependent retrieval

Correct answer: B

Explanation: Spaced review — returning to material at expanding intervals — is the direct application of forgetting curve research to studying. Each review session should happen just as retrieval strength begins to drop, which is when the retrieval attempt produces the greatest benefit. This is the opposite of cramming (one massive session) and also different from regular daily review (which reviews material while retrieval strength is still too high to benefit much). The expanding intervals — 1 day, 5 days, 2 weeks, 1 month — approximate the optimal timing for each review.

What did you get wrong? Those gaps are your next retrieval practice session. Don't just look up the answers — try to understand why you got them wrong. Was it that you never understood the concept, or that you understood it but couldn't retrieve it? The difference matters for what you do next.