Chapter 19 Further Reading: Feedback

Primary Sources

Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. — "The Power of Feedback" (2007, Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112) The most comprehensive review of feedback research in educational settings. Hattie and Timperley propose a four-level model of feedback (task, process, self-regulation, self) and systematically analyze which types of feedback are most effective at each level. This is essential reading for anyone interested in the research base. Key finding: feedback focused on task and process is most effective; feedback focused on self (praise and punishment) is least effective for learning.

Hattie, J. — Visible Learning: A Synthesis of Over 800 Meta-Analyses Relating to Achievement (2009) Hattie's landmark synthesis of thousands of studies on factors affecting student achievement. Feedback consistently ranks among the most effective influences on learning. While the methodology has been critiqued (meta-analysis of meta-analyses introduces compounding complexity), the broad finding that feedback quality matters enormously is robust.

Schmidt, R. A., & Lee, T. D. — Motor Control and Learning: A Behavioral Emphasis (6th edition, 2019) The foundational textbook for understanding how feedback functions in motor skill acquisition. Covers the guidance hypothesis, feedback frequency research, and the distinction between knowledge of results and knowledge of performance in detail. Technical but authoritative.

Supporting Research

Kulhavy, R. W., & Stock, W. A. — "Feedback in Written Instruction: The Place of Response Certitude" (1989, Educational Psychology Review, 1, 279–308) Research on feedback timing in written instruction contexts, including the finding that feedback is more effective when learners have committed to their own answer before receiving correction — supporting the value of requiring self-assessment before external feedback.

Butler, A. C., & Roediger, H. L. — "Feedback Enhances the Positive Effects and Reduces the Negative Effects of Multiple-Choice Testing" (2008, Memory & Cognition, 36, 604–616) Demonstrates that corrective feedback is particularly important when testing produces incorrect guesses — without feedback, wrong answers that were committed to can persist. Relevant for understanding when immediate feedback is especially important.

Dweck's Praise Research

Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. — "Praise for Intelligence Can Undermine Children's Motivation and Performance" (1998, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 33–52) The original research demonstrating differential effects of intelligence vs. effort praise. Includes multiple studies showing that intelligence praise produces fixed mindset behavior (avoidance of challenging tasks) while effort praise produces growth-oriented behavior. This is the research basis for the praise discussion in this chapter.

Dweck, C. S. — Mindset: The New Psychology of Success (2006) The popular treatment of fixed vs. growth mindset, including extended discussion of feedback and praise. A useful complement to the research papers, though note that some of the claims in the popular book (particularly about mindset interventions) have not replicated as strongly as suggested.

For Deeper Exploration

Ramaprasad, A. — "On the Definition of Feedback" (1983, Behavioral Science, 28(1), 4–13) A rigorous conceptual analysis of what feedback actually is and what distinguishes functional from non-functional feedback. Somewhat technical but provides important theoretical grounding.

Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. — "Formative Assessment and Self-Regulated Learning: A Model and Seven Principles of Good Feedback Practice" (2006, Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199–218) Particularly useful for higher education contexts. Develops seven principles of good feedback practice grounded in research, with special attention to developing self-regulation — the ability to monitor and direct one's own learning.

For Teachers and Coaches

Wiggins, G. — "Seven Keys to Effective Feedback" (2012, Educational Leadership, 70(1), 10–16) A concise, accessible summary of what research says makes feedback effective, written for practicing educators. Readable in twenty minutes; applicable immediately.

Heen, S., & Stone, D. — Thanks for the Feedback: The Science and Art of Receiving Feedback Well (2014) Most feedback literature focuses on giving feedback. This book focuses on receiving it effectively — understanding why we resist feedback, what makes it hard to accept, and how to extract value from feedback that is poorly delivered. Practically useful and grounded in research.