Quiz — Chapter 2

How Memory Actually Works: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval (and Why Rereading Fails)

Instructions

This quiz tests your understanding of Chapter 2 concepts. Answer each question before checking the answer key at the bottom. Remember: the act of trying to recall the answer — even if you get it wrong — strengthens your memory of the correct answer. That's the testing effect in action.

Target: 70% or higher to proceed to Chapter 3. If you score below 70%, review the relevant sections and retake the quiz after 24 hours (spacing!).

Questions

1. The three stages of memory, in order, are:

a) Storage, encoding, retrieval b) Encoding, storage, retrieval c) Retrieval, encoding, storage d) Input, processing, output

2. Working memory has an approximate capacity of:

a) 1-2 items b) 4 items (revised estimate; classically "7 plus or minus 2") c) 12-15 items d) Unlimited, but slow to access

3. A student reads a textbook chapter three times and feels confident about the material but performs poorly on the exam. Which concept BEST explains this gap between confidence and performance?

a) Encoding specificity principle b) Reconsolidation c) Fluency illusion / illusion of competence d) State-dependent memory

4. According to the levels of processing framework (Craik & Lockhart, 1972), which of the following study activities would produce the STRONGEST memory?

a) Counting the number of letters in each key term b) Copying the textbook's definitions word-for-word c) Re-reading highlighted passages three times d) Explaining in your own words why a concept works the way it does

5. What is the encoding specificity principle?

a) Information can only be encoded once and cannot be modified b) Retrieval is most effective when recall conditions match the conditions present during encoding c) Deep encoding always produces better recall than shallow encoding d) The first encoding of information is always the strongest

6. The testing effect refers to the finding that:

a) Students who take more tests in a course get higher grades b) Test anxiety reduces memory performance c) Retrieving information from memory strengthens it more than re-studying d) Multiple-choice tests are easier than free-recall tests

7. Which of the following is the threshold concept of this chapter?

a) Working memory has limited capacity b) Memory is not a recording — it is reconstructed each time you recall it c) Sleep is important for memory consolidation d) The testing effect is well-replicated

8. Reconsolidation is the process by which:

a) A memory is transferred from sensory memory to working memory b) A retrieved memory becomes temporarily unstable and is re-stored, sometimes in modified form c) Two memories are combined into one d) A memory is permanently erased from the brain

9. Sensory memory is characterized by:

a) Small capacity but long duration b) Large capacity and long duration c) Large capacity but very short duration d) Small capacity and very short duration

10. Dr. Okafor builds concept maps connecting new medical information to existing knowledge. This encoding strategy is effective primarily because:

a) It takes more time than rereading b) It creates multiple retrieval pathways and engages deep (semantic) processing c) It uses visual processing, which is always superior to verbal processing d) It reduces the amount of information he needs to remember

11. A student studies vocabulary words in her quiet bedroom every evening. On the exam in a noisy lecture hall, she has trouble remembering the words. Which memory principle BEST explains this difficulty?

a) The testing effect b) Reconsolidation c) Encoding specificity / context-dependent memory d) Levels of processing

12. The term "engram" refers to:

a) A type of encoding strategy b) The physical trace of a memory in the brain c) The process of transferring information from working memory to long-term memory d) A retrieval cue that triggers recall

13. Roediger and Karpicke's (2006) landmark study found that, after one week:

a) Students who re-read material four times recalled the most b) Students who studied once and tested three times recalled the most c) All groups performed equally d) Students who used highlighting recalled the most

14. Why does rereading fail to identify knowledge gaps?

a) Because the material has changed between readings b) Because the information is always visible, so you can't tell what you would and wouldn't recall without it c) Because rereading causes memory interference d) Because rereading is too fast to allow encoding

15. Which of the following is TRUE about long-term memory?

a) It has a fixed capacity of approximately 1 million items b) Information stored in long-term memory lasts exactly 30 days before being erased c) It has no known capacity limit, and some memories can last a lifetime d) It stores only episodic memories; semantic memories are stored in working memory

16. Mia Chen's experience on her biology exam illustrates the difference between:

a) Episodic memory and procedural memory b) Recognition and recall c) Encoding and consolidation d) Sensory memory and working memory

17. According to this chapter, the MOST common reason students' study sessions fail is:

a) They don't study long enough b) They study in the wrong location c) They engage in shallow processing without retrieval practice d) Their working memory capacity is too low

18. Which of the following correctly lists the subtypes of declarative (explicit) memory?

a) Procedural and automatic b) Episodic and semantic c) Sensory and motor d) Short-term and long-term

19. The chapter's "Two-Minute Encoding Check" best practice recommends that after any study session, you should:

a) Re-read the most difficult section one more time b) Close your materials and spend two minutes writing down everything you can remember c) Highlight the five most important concepts d) Create a color-coded summary chart

20. A student varies her study locations — sometimes studying in the library, sometimes in a coffee shop, sometimes at home. According to the encoding specificity principle, this practice should:

a) Reduce her recall because the inconsistency is confusing b) Make her memories more context-dependent c) Make her memories more flexibly accessible because they're not tied to a single context d) Have no effect on memory

Answer Key

1. b) Encoding, storage, retrieval. The three-stage model describes information flowing from encoding (getting it in) to storage (keeping it there) to retrieval (getting it back out). Section 2.1.

2. b) 4 items (revised estimate). George Miller's classic 1956 estimate was "seven plus or minus two," but more recent research by Nelson Cowan (2001) revised this to approximately four items when rehearsal and chunking are controlled for. Section 2.2.

3. c) Fluency illusion / illusion of competence. Rereading increases processing fluency — the ease with which the text is processed — which the brain misinterprets as evidence of learning. This creates a false sense of knowing (illusion of competence). Section 2.3 and Chapter 1.

4. d) Explaining in your own words why a concept works. This engages deep (semantic) processing — working with meaning, causation, and connections. Options a, b, and c all involve shallow or structural processing. Section 2.3.

5. b) Retrieval is most effective when recall conditions match the conditions present during encoding. This principle, established by Tulving and Thomson (1973), explains why studying in conditions similar to the test environment improves recall. Section 2.5.

6. c) Retrieving information from memory strengthens it more than re-studying. The testing effect (Roediger & Karpicke, 2006) demonstrates that retrieval practice is a more powerful learning strategy than rereading, even when total study time is held constant. Section 2.6.

7. b) Memory is not a recording — it is reconstructed each time you recall it. This threshold concept transforms how learners think about memory and studying. Understanding that memory is reconstructive explains why retrieval practice works and why rereading fails. Section 2.4.

8. b) A retrieved memory becomes temporarily unstable and is re-stored, sometimes in modified form. Reconsolidation means that the act of remembering literally reopens and rewrites the memory trace. This is the biological mechanism behind the testing effect. Section 2.4.

9. c) Large capacity but very short duration. Sensory memory captures everything your senses detect but retains it for only about 0.5 seconds (visual) to 3-4 seconds (auditory). Only attended information survives to working memory. Section 2.2.

10. b) It creates multiple retrieval pathways and engages deep (semantic) processing. Schema construction connects new information to existing knowledge, creating a web of associations that provides multiple routes for retrieval. Section 2.3.

11. c) Encoding specificity / context-dependent memory. The environmental cues present during study (quiet bedroom) don't match the retrieval environment (noisy lecture hall), reducing the effectiveness of retrieval cues. Section 2.5.

12. b) The physical trace of a memory in the brain. An engram is the pattern of neural connections that constitutes a stored memory. Section 2.2.

13. b) Students who studied once and tested three times recalled the most. This landmark study demonstrated that retrieval practice produces superior long-term retention compared to re-studying, even though re-studying produced equivalent or better performance at a 5-minute delay. Section 2.6.

14. b) Because the information is always visible, so you can't tell what you would and wouldn't recall without it. When the textbook is open, everything looks familiar. You can't distinguish between what you've truly encoded and what you're merely recognizing. Retrieval practice (closing the book and testing yourself) solves this problem. Section 2.6.

15. c) It has no known capacity limit, and some memories can last a lifetime. There is no evidence that long-term memory can "fill up." The primary challenge is retrieval, not storage. Section 2.2.

16. b) Recognition and recall. Mia recognized the material on the exam (it looked familiar) but couldn't recall it (generate the answers from memory). Her study strategies built recognition but not recall. Sections 2.3 and 2.7.

17. c) They engage in shallow processing without retrieval practice. The most common study failure pattern combines shallow processing (rereading, highlighting) with zero retrieval practice, producing weak encoding and no retrieval pathway strengthening. Section 2.7.

18. b) Episodic and semantic. Declarative (explicit) memory includes episodic memory (personal experiences) and semantic memory (facts and concepts). Procedural memory is a separate category under non-declarative (implicit) memory. Section 2.2.

19. b) Close your materials and spend two minutes writing down everything you can remember. This brief retrieval practice session reveals gaps, strengthens memory through the testing effect, and provides accurate metacognitive feedback. Section 2.7.

20. c) Make her memories more flexibly accessible because they're not tied to a single context. Varying study locations prevents memories from becoming bound to a single set of environmental cues, making them accessible across different contexts — including the exam room. Section 2.5.

Scoring Guide

Metacognitive Reflection

After scoring your quiz, answer these questions:

1. Before taking the quiz, how confident were you that you'd score above 70%? Rate your confidence from 1 (not at all confident) to 5 (extremely confident).
2. Compare your prediction to your actual score. Were you overconfident, underconfident, or well-calibrated?
3. For any questions you got wrong: can you now explain why the correct answer is correct? If so, you've just used the testing effect to strengthen that knowledge.