Chapter 12: Further Reading

Essential Sources

Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). "Learning styles: Concepts and evidence." Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(3), 105–119. The definitive review. Concludes that the evidence does not support the meshing hypothesis. Published in the field's premier review journal.

Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). "Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology." Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 14(1), 4–58. The comprehensive review of study strategies, rating each by evidence strength. Retrieval practice and spaced practice are the only two rated "high utility."

Rogowsky, B. A., Calhoun, B. M., & Tallal, P. (2015). "Matching learning style to instructional method: Effects on comprehension." Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(1), 64–78. A properly designed test of the meshing hypothesis: 121 adults, random assignment to matched/mismatched conditions. No interaction effect found.

Husmann, P. R., & O'Loughlin, V. D. (2019). "Another nail in the coffin for learning styles? Disparities among undergraduate anatomy students' study strategies, class performance, and reported VARK learning styles." Anatomical Sciences Education, 12(1), 6–19. Shows that self-identified "visual learners" don't actually study visually, and style-consistent studying doesn't predict performance.

Roediger, H. L., III, & Butler, A. C. (2011). "The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention." Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27. Comprehensive review of retrieval practice — the study strategy with the strongest evidence.

Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). "Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis." Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354–380. Meta-analysis of the spacing effect across 254 studies spanning a century. Robust and consistent.

Brown, P. C., Roediger, H. L., III, & McDaniel, M. A. (2014). Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning. Harvard University Press. The best popular book on evidence-based learning strategies. Accessible, well-cited, and practical. The recommended replacement for any learning styles–based study guide.

Willingham, D. T. (2009). Why Don't Students Like School? A Cognitive Scientist Answers Questions About How the Mind Works and What It Means for the Classroom. Jossey-Bass. Cognitive scientist's guide for educators. Chapter on learning styles debunking is excellent and teacher-friendly.

Carey, B. (2014). How We Learn: The Surprising Truth About When, Where, and Why It Happens. Random House. Accessible popular science book on learning strategies, covering spacing, interleaving, retrieval, and other evidence-based approaches.

Online Resources

The Learning Scientists (learningscientists.org). A team of cognitive psychologists providing free, teacher-friendly resources on evidence-based learning strategies. Excellent infographics and classroom guides.

Retrieval Practice (retrievalpractice.org). Free resources for implementing retrieval practice in classrooms and personal study, created by Pooja Agarwal and colleagues.