Quiz — Chapter 9: Identity and Self-Concept

25 questions. Multiple choice unless otherwise indicated. Answers with explanations at the end.

1. According to Dan McAdams, identity is best described as:

a) The sum of a person's Big Five personality trait scores b) A personal myth — an internalized, evolving narrative that integrates past, present, and anticipated future c) The set of group memberships that a person holds d) A fixed self-concept that stabilizes in early adulthood

2. The key distinction between personality and identity, as used in this chapter, is:

a) Personality is stable; identity can change b) Personality is observable; identity is always private c) Personality describes characteristic tendencies; identity is the narrative and self-understanding built around those tendencies d) Personality is biologically based; identity is entirely socially constructed

3. Self-schemas are best defined as:

a) Fixed beliefs about other people b) Cognitive generalizations about the self in specific domains that influence how self-relevant information is processed c) The emotional reactions people have when their self-concept is threatened d) Personality trait scores

4. The "working self-concept" refers to:

a) The aspect of self-concept related to professional identity b) The subset of self-knowledge that is active and salient in a given context at a given moment c) The self-concept that a person uses to achieve their career goals d) The gap between actual and ideal self

5. Research on self-consistency motivation suggests that people:

a) Actively seek information that challenges their self-concept to promote growth b) Are entirely uninterested in how others perceive them c) Tend to seek environments and feedback that confirm existing self-concepts, sometimes at the cost of accuracy d) Adjust their self-concept readily and rapidly in response to feedback

6. In Erikson's theory, the central developmental task of adolescence is:

a) Industry vs. Inferiority b) Intimacy vs. Isolation c) Identity vs. Role Confusion d) Generativity vs. Stagnation

7. Which of Marcia's identity statuses describes a person who has made a firm identity commitment but without serious prior exploration?

a) Identity Achievement b) Identity Moratorium c) Identity Diffusion d) Identity Foreclosure

8. Identity Moratorium is characterized by:

a) Commitment without exploration b) Neither commitment nor exploration c) Active exploration without settled commitment — an uncomfortable but productive state d) Full identity achievement

9. Research on Marcia's identity statuses suggests that:

a) Achievement is reached most reliably by skipping moratorium and committing early b) Moratorium tends to be the precursor to achievement — the exploration phase typically precedes secure commitment c) Foreclosure is the healthiest status because it provides stability d) Identity status is fixed by the end of adolescence

10. Social Identity Theory was developed by:

a) Erikson and Marcia b) McAdams and Markus c) Tajfel and Turner d) Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi

11. "Minimal group" experiments in social identity research found that:

a) In-group favoritism only occurs when groups have a meaningful history b) Even arbitrary group categorization produces in-group favoritism c) Group membership reduces bias by creating shared identity d) Social identities only affect self-concept when threatened by out-groups

12. Stereotype threat, as researched by Claude Steele, refers to:

a) A person consciously endorsing a negative stereotype about their group b) Impaired performance caused by the activation of a negative group stereotype, even in people who reject the stereotype c) The process of attributing negative stereotypes to out-group members d) The fear of being stereotyped in a job interview

13. "Narrative identity" in McAdams's framework refers to:

a) The fictional stories people tell to manage their image b) The identity claims made in professional writing and resumes c) The personal narrative that integrates past, present, and future into a coherent self — a "personal myth" d) The stories that define national and cultural identity

14. A "redemption sequence" in narrative identity research is:

a) A story that begins with achievement and ends with failure b) A story in which a negative event leads to a positive outcome — growth, wisdom, strength c) A story that justifies past mistakes as necessary d) The process of apologizing for past behavior to restore relationships

15. Research on redemptive vs. contamination narratives found that:

a) These narrative patterns directly reflect the objective quality of events in a person's life b) People with redemptive narratives show higher wellbeing, generativity, and psychological maturity — and these patterns are not fully determined by objective life events c) Contamination narratives are more accurate and therefore healthier d) Narrative patterns are stable from birth and cannot be changed

16. Possible selves theory was developed by:

a) Erikson and Marcia b) McAdams and Adler c) Markus and Nurius d) Tajfel and Turner

17. The most motivationally effective configuration of possible selves, according to research, is:

a) A hoped-for self without any feared self — optimism produces more action b) A feared self without a hoped-for self — fear is a stronger motivator than hope c) A hoped-for self in one domain paired with a feared self in the same domain d) Multiple hoped-for selves across as many domains as possible

18. "Independent self-construal" (as described by Markus and Kitayama) is characterized by:

a) The self understood as fundamentally relational — defined by roles and group memberships b) The self understood as a bounded, autonomous entity distinct from social contexts c) An unwillingness to commit to any group identity d) The belief that the self does not change across contexts

19. Which of the following best describes "interdependent self-construal"?

a) Believing that personal achievement is the primary source of self-esteem b) Understanding the self primarily in terms of roles, relationships, and group memberships; adapting appropriately to different contexts is valued c) Complete dependence on others for all decisions and self-evaluations d) An inability to maintain consistent values or commitments

20. Identity reconstruction following major disruption (e.g., job loss, divorce) typically involves:

a) Immediately replacing the lost identity with a new one to minimize distress b) Grieving the lost identity, revising the narrative, identifying stable values, and gradually committing to new claims c) Returning to one's pre-adult identity as a foundation d) Simply deciding to think about oneself differently

21. The self-consistency motivation can become maladaptive when:

a) A person updates their self-concept too frequently b) A person's self-concept is overly positive c) It locks a person into a self-concept that no longer serves them or was formed in circumstances no longer relevant to their life d) It causes a person to avoid all social comparison

22. McAdams distinguishes narrative identity from personality by noting that:

a) Personality is subjective; narrative identity is objective b) Personality does not change; narrative identity is inherently changeable c) Personality describes broad behavioral tendencies; narrative identity is the subjective story that integrates and gives meaning to those tendencies and to life experience d) Narrative identity is simpler and more accessible than personality

23. Research by Jonathan Adler and colleagues on narrative change in therapy found:

a) Narrative changes were unrelated to therapeutic outcomes b) Only behavioral changes, not narrative changes, produced lasting improvement c) People who showed the greatest therapeutic gains were more likely to tell stories emphasizing agency, growth, and self-understanding d) Redemptive reframing worsened symptoms because it avoided difficult emotions

24. What is the primary critique of Erikson's stage theory noted in the chapter?

a) It places too much emphasis on childhood at the expense of adult development b) It overestimates the role of relationships in identity development c) It carries Western, middle-class assumptions that make the stage model a poor fit for many cultural and socioeconomic contexts d) It was not based on any empirical research

25. (Short answer) Explain the difference between identity foreclosure and identity achievement, and describe one benefit and one risk of each status. (4–6 sentences)

Answer Key

1. b — McAdams defines identity as a personal myth — not simply trait scores (a), not just group memberships (c), and not fixed in adulthood (d). The narrative quality is central to his definition.

2. c — Personality describes characteristic tendencies; identity is the narrative and self-understanding built from those tendencies plus life history, roles, and values. Both can change (a is too simple), both have observable and private dimensions (b), and both have biological and social components (d).

3. b — Self-schemas are cognitive generalizations about the self in specific domains (athletic, reliable, creative, etc.) that shape how self-relevant information is processed. They are about the self, not others (a), and are cognitive, not emotional (c).

4. b — The working self-concept is the contextually active subset of the full self-concept. It shifts depending on which aspects of self are made salient by the current situation — not specifically professional (a) or achievement-oriented (c).

5. c — Self-consistency motivation leads people to seek confirming environments and feedback and resist disconfirming information. This is the conservative bias in self-concept maintenance. The opposite of (a), and not entirely about external perception (b) or rapid adjustment (d).

6. c — Identity vs. Role Confusion is Erikson's adolescence stage. Industry vs. Inferiority is school age; Intimacy vs. Isolation is young adulthood; Generativity vs. Stagnation is middle adulthood.

7. d — Identity Foreclosure: commitment without exploration. The person has adopted an identity (often from family or culture) without seriously examining whether it fits. Achievement (a) involves both; Moratorium (b) is exploration without commitment; Diffusion (c) is neither.

8. c — Moratorium is active exploration without settled commitment. It is uncomfortable but productive — the typical precursor to achievement. It is not commitment (a), not absence of both (b), and not full achievement (d).

9. b — Research consistently shows that moratorium — the examining, questioning, unsettled period — typically precedes identity achievement. Skipping moratorium tends to produce foreclosure, not achievement (a). Foreclosure is not the healthiest status (c). Identity continues developing past adolescence (d).

10. c — Tajfel and Turner developed Social Identity Theory. Erikson and Marcia developed identity stage frameworks; McAdams developed narrative identity theory; Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi are positive psychology figures.

11. b — Minimal group experiments showed that even arbitrary, meaningless group categorization produces in-group favoritism. The finding is robust even when groups have no shared history, no meaningful differences, and no material stakes.

12. b — Stereotype threat is the impairment of performance caused by the activation of a negative group stereotype in a relevant context — even in people who consciously reject the stereotype. The mechanism is cognitive load, not conscious endorsement (a) or conscious attribution (c).

13. c — Narrative identity in McAdams's framework is the personal narrative integrating past, present, and future — a "personal myth" that provides coherence and meaning. It is not primarily about image management (a), professional writing (b), or collective cultural identity (d).

14. b — A redemption sequence moves from negative to positive — suffering, adversity, or failure leads to growth, strength, or wisdom. The opposite (positive to negative) is a contamination sequence (a). It is distinct from rationalization (d).

15. b — McAdams and colleagues found that redemptive narratives predict higher wellbeing, generativity, and maturity — and that these patterns are not simply determined by the objective quality of life events. Two people with similar histories can narrate them differently. This is the practically significant finding.

16. c — Hazel Markus and Paula Nurius developed possible selves theory. McAdams developed narrative identity; Adler extended it to therapy research; Tajfel and Turner developed social identity theory.

17. c — The most motivationally effective configuration is a hoped-for self paired with a feared self in the same domain. The combination of approach and avoidance motivation in the same domain produces sustained motivation. Neither alone is as effective.

18. b — Independent self-construal: the self as bounded, autonomous, consistent across contexts, defined by personal attributes. This is prevalent in Western individualist cultures. Interdependent self-construal is option (a).

19. b — Interdependent self-construal: the self understood in relational, contextual terms; defined by roles and group memberships; adapting to different contexts is valued rather than seen as inconsistency. This is not dependency (c) or inconsistency (d).

20. b — Identity reconstruction involves grieving the lost identity, revising the narrative to integrate the disruption, identifying stable values, and gradually committing to new claims. Immediate replacement (a) typically fails to process the loss adequately; returning to childhood identity (c) is regression; simple cognitive reframing (d) is insufficient.

21. c — Self-consistency motivation becomes maladaptive when it locks someone into an outdated or unhelpful self-concept — one formed in circumstances no longer relevant. Updating too frequently (a) is more a symptom of diffusion; positivity bias (b) is a separate issue; social comparison (d) is unrelated.

22. c — McAdams distinguishes personality (broad tendencies) from narrative identity (the subjective story that integrates and interprets those tendencies and life events). Personality is not more objective (a); both can change (b, oversimplified); narrative identity is not simpler (d).

23. c — Adler and colleagues found that therapeutic gains were associated with narrative changes toward greater agency, growth, and self-understanding — what they called "narrative self-understanding." This finding supports narrative identity theory as a mechanism of therapeutic change.

24. c — The primary critique is that Erikson's stages carry Western and middle-class assumptions — particularly about the timing and nature of identity development, the centrality of individual autonomous identity, and the linear stage model. The theory underweights cultural variation.

25. (Model answer) Identity foreclosure is commitment to an identity without prior exploration — adopting the identity provided by family, culture, or circumstance without serious examination. Its benefit is stability and a clear sense of purpose; its risk is that the identity may not truly fit, and that it is vulnerable to collapse if circumstances challenge it. Identity achievement is commitment following exploration — a self-determined identity that has been genuinely examined and chosen. Its benefit is security based on authentic choice; its risk is that the exploration phase (moratorium) is uncomfortable and sometimes prolonged, and not everyone successfully navigates it to reach the commitment stage.