Further Reading — Chapter 36: Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Group Identity

Foundational Academic Sources

Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Addison-Wesley. The foundational text of prejudice research — comprehensive, humane, and still relevant. Allport established the tripartite definition of prejudice, the scale of discriminatory behavior, and the Contact Hypothesis. Reading it as a historical document reveals how much of the contemporary framework was already visible in 1954, and how much has changed. Accessible to general readers.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In S. Worchel & W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 7–24). Nelson-Hall. The definitive statement of Social Identity Theory — Tajfel and Turner's framework for how group membership becomes part of self-concept and drives in-group favoritism. Somewhat technical but accessible to motivated general readers. The foundational reference for the majority of contemporary intergroup research.

Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. K. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464–1480. The original IAT paper — the measurement rationale, the experimental evidence, and the implications. Technical; the concept and implications are more accessible in the books and review articles listed below. The IAT is controversial in interpretation; Greenwald and colleagues have continued to refine and defend the measure.

Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2005). Understanding and addressing contemporary racism: From aversive racism to the common in-group identity model. Journal of Social Issues, 61(3), 615–639. A review paper by the researchers who developed both the aversive racism model and the Common In-Group Identity Model — useful for understanding how their thinking evolved from documenting the problem to proposing solutions. Accessible; shorter than the primary books.

Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. The original stereotype threat paper — the experimental design, the findings, and the initial interpretation. The research has been replicated across many groups and domains; this is the foundational source. Available in most institutional libraries.

Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 751–783. The comprehensive meta-analysis of 515 studies confirming the Contact Hypothesis — the evidence base and the effect-size data. Technical; accessible in summary form through Pettigrew's later writing.

Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1(8), 139–167. The foundational intersectionality paper — a legal theory analysis with profound implications for social psychology. Crenshaw's argument that single-axis analysis of discrimination misses the specific harm at intersections is both a legal critique and an empirical claim. Accessible to motivated general readers.

Books for General Readers

Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Addison-Wesley. See above under Foundational Academic Sources. Worth reading in full; more accessible than its age suggests.

Steele, C. M. (2010). Whistling Vivaldi: How Stereotypes Affect Us and What We Can Do. W. W. Norton. Claude Steele's accessible account of stereotype threat research — the experimental findings, the personal stories, and the implications for education, testing, and workplace design. The title refers to the strategy of the book's opening anecdote: signaling identity safety through cultural signaling. One of the most important books for understanding how social contexts shape performance. Essential reading.

Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (Eds.). (1986). Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism. Academic Press. The foundational collection on aversive racism — the original empirical work and the theoretical framework. More technical than Whistling Vivaldi; valuable for readers who want the experimental detail.

Alexander, M. (2010). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. The New Press. Michelle Alexander's analysis of the racial caste system embedded in the mass incarceration apparatus — an application of structural discrimination analysis to criminal justice. Not primarily a psychology text, but an essential companion to the individual-level psychology of this chapter. Demonstrates how implicit bias and structural mechanisms compound to produce systemic outcomes.

Sue, D. W. (2010). Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Race, Gender, and Sexual Orientation. Wiley. Derald Wing Sue's comprehensive account of microaggressions — the theoretical framework, the empirical research, the specific forms across race, gender, and sexual orientation, and practical guidance for response. The foundational reference for the microaggression literature.

Kendi, I. X. (2019). How to Be an Antiracist. One World. Ibram Kendi's personal and analytical account of antiracist thinking — a memoir intertwined with an intellectual argument about how racism operates at individual, institutional, and structural levels and what active antiracism requires. More polemical than the academic sources; more accessible as an entry point. The distinction between racist policies and antiracist policies is particularly useful.

Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2013). Blindspot: Hidden Biases of Good People. Delacorte Press. Mahzarin Banaji and Anthony Greenwald's accessible account of implicit bias — written for general readers by the researchers who developed the IAT. Honest about the limitations of the measure and the complexity of what it means. A more balanced account of implicit bias than many popular treatments.

Sherif, M. (1966). In Common Predicament: Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation. Houghton Mifflin. Muzafer Sherif's account of the Robbers Cave research and Realistic Group Conflict Theory — accessible and historically important. The superordinate goals solution to intergroup conflict is described in detail.

On Clinical and Applied Applications

Sue, S., & Zane, N. (1987). The role of culture and cultural techniques in psychotherapy: A critique and reformulation. American Psychologist, 42(1), 37–45. The foundational paper on cultural responsiveness in psychotherapy — the argument that "cultural techniques" (surface cultural knowledge) are less important than the therapeutic relationship's responsiveness to clients' specific cultural contexts. Technically accessible; practically important for any clinician.

American Psychological Association. (2017). Multicultural guidelines: An ecological approach to context, identity, and intersectionality. American Psychological Association. The APA's current guidelines for culturally responsive practice — the framework, the evidence base, and practical applications. Freely available from the APA website. Essential reading for anyone in clinical training.

The Character Reading Lists

Jordan is working through: - Whistling Vivaldi (Steele) — reading it slowly; several passages heavily annotated; journal note: "The concept of identity safety. I've been building it on my team without naming it. I can do it more deliberately now." - Blindspot (Banaji & Greenwald) — working through the IAT chapter with his own results; wrote to Rivera: "I did the test. You should read this."

Amara is working through: - Whistling Vivaldi (Steele) — reading alongside her personal experience of stereotype threat in clinical assessment contexts; supervision note: "Steele says identity safety is about signaling that the stereotyped identity is not the basis for judgment in this context. That's what Marcus does in supervision. That's what I want to do with clients." - APA Multicultural Guidelines — working through the document as part of her second-year curriculum; annotating sections relevant to her current client roster