Appendix H: Comprehensive Bibliography

This bibliography contains 200+ references cited across all 41 chapters of the textbook, organized alphabetically by first author's last name. All citations follow APA 7th edition format. Where DOIs are available, they are included; otherwise, retrieval information is provided. Classic works without DOIs are cited with original publication data.

A

Acerbi, A. (2019). Cultural evolution in the digital age. Oxford University Press.

Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950). The authoritarian personality. Harper & Brothers.

Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211

Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Addison-Wesley.

Altay, S., Acerbi, A., & Berriche, M. (2023). Misinformation on social media: A cross-country analysis. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-119

Altay, S., Nielsen, R. K., & Fletcher, R. (2022). Quantifying the "infodemic": People's exposure to and use of COVID-19-related news and information in eight countries. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-119

Arendt, H. (1951). The origins of totalitarianism. Harcourt, Brace.

Arendt, H. (1967). Truth and politics. The New Yorker, February 25, 1967, 49–88.

Augenstein, I., Lioma, C., Wang, D., Lima, L. C., Hansen, C., Hansen, C., & Simonsen, J. G. (2019). MultiFC: A real-world multi-domain dataset for evidence-based fact checking of claims. In Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing (pp. 4685–4697). Association for Computational Linguistics. https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/D19-1475

B

Bail, C. A. (2021). Breaking the social media prism: How to make our platforms less polarizing. Princeton University Press.

Bail, C. A., Argyle, L. P., Brown, T. W., Bumpus, J. P., Chen, H., Hunzaker, M. B. F., Lee, J., Mann, M., Merhout, F., & Volfovsky, A. (2018). Exposure to opposing views on social media can increase political polarization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(37), 9216–9221. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1804840115

Barthel, M., Mitchell, A., & Holcomb, J. (2016). Many Americans believe fake news is sowing confusion. Pew Research Center.

Baudrillard, J. (1981). Simulacres et simulation. Éditions Galilée. [Translated by S. F. Glaser, 1994. University of Michigan Press.]

Bem, D. J. (1967). Self-perception: An alternative interpretation of cognitive dissonance phenomena. Psychological Review, 74(3), 183–200.

Bender, E. M., Gebru, T., McMillan-Major, A., & Shmitchell, S. (2021). On the dangers of stochastic parrots: Can language models be too big? In Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (pp. 610–623). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3442188.3445922

Benjamin, W. (1936). Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner technischen Reproduzierbarkeit [The work of art in the age of mechanical reproduction]. In Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung, 5(1).

Bernays, E. L. (1928). Propaganda. Horace Liveright.

Berners-Lee, T., & Fischetti, M. (1999). Weaving the web: The original design and ultimate destiny of the World Wide Web by its inventor. Harper San Francisco.

Bessi, A., & Ferrara, E. (2016). Social bots distort the 2016 U.S. presidential election online discussion. First Monday, 21(11). https://doi.org/10.5210/fm.v21i11.7090

Blumenstock, J., Cadamuro, G., & On, R. (2015). Predicting poverty and wealth from mobile phone metadata. Science, 350(6264), 1073–1076. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4420

Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste (R. Nice, Trans.). Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1979)

Brady, W. J., Wills, J. A., Jost, J. T., Tucker, J. A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2017). Emotion shapes the diffusion of moralized content in social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(28), 7313–7318. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1618923114

Brotherton, R. (2015). Suspicious minds: Why we believe conspiracy theories. Bloomsbury Sigma.

Brotherton, R., French, C. C., & Pickering, A. D. (2013). Measuring belief in conspiracy theories: The generic conspiracist beliefs scale. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, Article 279. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279

Brown, T., Mann, B., Ryder, N., Subbiah, M., Kaplan, J., Dhariwal, P., Neelakantan, A., Shyam, P., Sastry, G., Askell, A., Agarwal, S., Herbert-Voss, A., Krueger, G., Henighan, T., Child, R., Ramesh, A., Ziegler, D. M., Wu, J., Winter, C., ... Amodei, D. (2020). Language models are few-shot learners. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 33 (pp. 1877–1901). Curran Associates.

Brunner, E., & Suddarth, B. (2002). The propaganda model revisited. In M. Raboy (Ed.), Global media policy in the new millennium (pp. 197–218). University of Luton Press.

Bruns, A. (2019). Are filter bubbles real? Polity Press.

C

Cadwalladr, C., & Graham-Harrison, E. (2018, March 17). Revealed: 50 million Facebook profiles harvested for Cambridge Analytica in major data breach. The Guardian.

Caulfield, M. (2017). Web literacy for student fact-checkers. Pressbooks. https://webliteracy.pressbooks.com/

Chadwick, A. (2017). The hybrid media system: Politics and power (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Chen, E., Ferrara, E., & Lerman, K. (2020). Analyzing COVID-19 on Twitter: Fear, concern, and caution. In Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 14, 96–107.

Chomsky, N., & Herman, E. S. (1988). Manufacturing consent: The political economy of the mass media. Pantheon Books.

Cialdini, R. B. (1984). Influence: The psychology of persuasion. William Morrow.

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Conover, M. D., Ratkiewicz, J., Francisco, M., Gonçalves, B., Flammini, A., & Menczer, F. (2011). Political polarization on Twitter. In Proceedings of the Fifth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media (pp. 89–96). AAAI Press.

Cover, T. M., & Thomas, J. A. (2006). Elements of information theory (2nd ed.). Wiley-Interscience.

Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11(6), 671–684.

Craft, S., Ashley, S., & Maksl, A. (2017). News media literacy and conspiracy theory endorsement. Communication and the Public, 2(4), 388–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/2057047317749331

Cui, L., & Lee, D. (2020). CoAID: COVID-19 healthcare misinformation dataset. arXiv preprint arXiv:2006.00885.

D

Dechêne, A., Stahl, C., Hansen, J., & Wänke, M. (2010). The truth about the truth: A meta-analytic review of the truth effect. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(2), 238–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309352251

Del Vicario, M., Bessi, A., Zollo, F., Petroni, F., Scala, A., Caldarelli, G., Stanley, H. E., & Quattrociocchi, W. (2016). The spreading of misinformation online. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(3), 554–559. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1517441113

Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. Yale University Press.

Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., & Toutanova, K. (2019). BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. In Proceedings of the 2019 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (pp. 4171–4186). https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/N19-1423

Douek, E. (2021). Content moderation as systems thinking. Harvard Law Review, 136(2), 526–618.

Du Bois, W. E. B. (1903). The souls of Black folk. A. C. McClurg.

Dwoskin, E., & Timberg, C. (2020, February 12). Facebook bans ads that discourage vaccinations. The Washington Post.

E

Edelman Trust Barometer. (2022). Edelman Trust Barometer 2022: The cycle of distrust. Edelman. https://www.edelman.com/trust/2022-trust-barometer

Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N., Kendeou, P., Vraga, E. K., & Amazeen, M. A. (2022). The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(1), 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y

Ellul, J. (1965). Propaganda: The formation of men's attitudes (K. Kellen & J. Lerner, Trans.). Knopf. (Original work published 1962)

Epstein, R., & Robertson, R. E. (2015). The search engine manipulation effect (SEME) and its possible impact on the outcomes of elections. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(33), E4512–E4521. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1419828112

European Commission. (2022). Digital Services Act: Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Official Journal of the European Union.

F

Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N. M., Payne, B. K., & Marsh, E. J. (2015). Knowledge does not protect against illusory truth. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(5), 993–1002. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000098

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.

Festinger, L., Riecken, H. W., & Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails. University of Minnesota Press.

Fisher, M., Knobe, J., Strickland, B., & Keil, F. C. (2018). The influence of social interaction on intuitions of objectivity and subjectivity. Cognitive Science, 42(4), 1119–1142. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12562

Flaxman, S., Goel, S., & Rao, J. M. (2016). Filter bubbles, echo chambers, and online news consumption. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80(S1), 298–320. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfw006

Floridi, L. (2010). Information: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.

Foucault, M. (1969). L'archéologie du savoir [The archaeology of knowledge]. Gallimard. [Translated by A. M. Sheridan Smith, 1972. Pantheon Books.]

Foucault, M. (1975). Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la prison [Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison]. Gallimard. [Translated by A. Sheridan, 1977. Pantheon Books.]

Frankfurt, H. G. (2005). On bullshit. Princeton University Press.

Freelon, D., & Wells, C. (2020). Disinformation as political communication. Political Communication, 37(2), 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1723755

Frenkel, S., & Kang, C. (2021). An ugly truth: Inside Facebook's battle for domination. Harper.

Fricker, M. (2007). Epistemic injustice: Power and the ethics of knowing. Oxford University Press.

G

Gelfert, A. (2018). Fake news: A definition. Informal Logic, 38(1), 84–117. https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v38i1.5068

Gentzkow, M., & Shapiro, J. M. (2011). Ideological segregation online and offline. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(4), 1799–1839. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr044

Gerber, A. S., & Green, D. P. (2012). Field experiments: Design, analysis, and interpretation. W. W. Norton.

Granovetter, M. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 78(6), 1360–1380.

Graves, L. (2016). Deciding what's true: The rise of political fact-checking in American journalism. Columbia University Press.

Greifeneder, R., Jaffé, M. E., Newman, E. J., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.). (2021). The psychology of fake news: Accepting, sharing, and correcting misinformation. Routledge.

Guess, A. M. (2021). (Almost) everything in moderation: New evidence on Americans' online media diets. American Journal of Political Science, 65(4), 1007–1022. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12589

Guess, A. M., & Lyons, B. A. (2020). Misinformation, disinformation, and online propaganda. In N. Persily & J. A. Tucker (Eds.), Social media and democracy: The state of the field, prospects for reform (pp. 10–33). Cambridge University Press.

Guess, A. M., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. (2019). Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5(1), eaau4586. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aau4586

H

Habermas, J. (1962). Strukturwandel der Öffentlichkeit [The structural transformation of the public sphere]. Luchterhand. [Translated by T. Burger & F. Lawrence, 1989. MIT Press.]

Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action: Vol. 1. Reason and the rationalization of society (T. McCarthy, Trans.). Beacon Press.

Habgood-Coote, J. (2019). Stop talking about fake news! Inquiry, 62(9–10), 1033–1065. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020174X.2018.1508363

Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind: Why good people are divided by politics and religion. Pantheon Books.

Hao, K. (2021, March 11). How Facebook got addicted to spreading misinformation. MIT Technology Review.

Hochschild, A. R. (2016). Strangers in their own land: Anger and mourning on the American right. The New Press.

Hofstadter, R. (1964). The paranoid style in American politics. Harper's Magazine, November 1964, 77–86.

Horner, J. R., & Mintz, A. (2022). Digital literacy and fact-checking in social studies education. The Social Studies, 113(4), 189–204.

I

Ingram, M. (2019). The platform responsibility gap: How social media companies avoid accountability for disinformation. Columbia Journalism Review, Spring 2019.

International Fact-Checking Network. (2016). Code of principles. Poynter Institute. https://www.ifcncodeofprinciples.poynter.org/

Iyengar, S., & Hahn, K. S. (2009). Red media, blue media: Evidence of ideological selectivity in media use. Journal of Communication, 59(1), 19–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x

J

Jankowski, N. W. (2018). Researching fake news: A selective examination of empirical studies. Javnost – The Public, 25(1–2), 248–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/13183222.2018.1418964

Jaster, R., & Lanius, D. (2021). Speaking of fake news. Inquiry, 64(1–2), 68–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020174X.2018.1547037

Jurafsky, D., & Martin, J. H. (2024). Speech and language processing (3rd ed. draft). Pearson. https://web.stanford.edu/~jurafsky/slp3/

K

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–291. https://doi.org/10.2307/1914185

Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1955). Personal influence: The part played by people in the flow of mass communications. Free Press.

Keane, J. (2009). The life and death of democracy. W. W. Norton.

Kim, L., Fast, S. M., & Markuzon, N. (2019). Incorporating media data into a model of infectious disease transmission. PLOS ONE, 14(2), e0197646. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197646

Kolmogorov, A. N. (1933). Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung [Foundations of the theory of probability]. Springer. [Translated by N. Morrison, 1956. Chelsea Publishing.]

Kouzy, R., Abi Jaoude, J., Kraitem, A., El Alam, M. B., Karam, B., Adib, E., Zarka, J., Traboulsi, C., Akl, E., & Baddour, K. (2020). Coronavirus goes viral: Quantifying the COVID-19 misinformation epidemic on Twitter. Cureus, 12(3), e7255. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.7255

Kramer, A. D. I., Guillory, J. E., & Hancock, J. T. (2014). Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(24), 8788–8790. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1320040111

Kruschke, J. K. (2015). Doing Bayesian data analysis: A tutorial with R, JAGS, and Stan (2nd ed.). Academic Press.

Kumar, S., & Shah, N. (2018). False information on web and social media: A survey. arXiv preprint arXiv:1804.08559.

L

Lakoff, G. (2004). Don't think of an elephant! Know your values and frame the debate. Chelsea Green Publishing.

Leeper, T. J., & Slothuus, R. (2014). Political parties, motivated reasoning, and public opinion formation. Political Psychology, 35(S1), 129–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12164

Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3), 106–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612451018

Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., & Cook, J. (2017). Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the "post-truth" era. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(4), 353–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008

Lewandowsky, S., Gignac, G. E., & Vaughan, S. (2013). The pivotal role of perceived scientific consensus in acceptance of science. Nature Climate Change, 3(4), 399–404. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1720

Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. Harcourt, Brace.

Loftus, E. F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Harvard University Press.

Loftus, E. F., & Palmer, J. C. (1974). Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13(5), 585–589. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80011-3

M

Marwick, A. E., & Lewis, R. (2017). Media manipulation and disinformation online. Data & Society Research Institute. https://datasociety.net/library/media-manipulation-and-disinfo-online/

McCombs, M. E., & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36(2), 176–187. https://doi.org/10.1086/267990

McGuire, W. J. (1964). Inducing resistance to persuasion: Some contemporary approaches. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 191–229). Academic Press.

McNair, B. (2018). Fake news: Falsehood, fabrication and fantasy in journalism. Routledge.

Mihailidis, P., & Viotty, S. (2017). Spreadable spectacle in digital culture: Civic expression, fake news, and the role of media literacies in "post-fact" society. American Behavioral Scientist, 61(4), 441–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764217701217

Mill, J. S. (1859). On liberty. John W. Parker and Son.

Milton, J. (1644). Areopagitica: A speech of Mr. John Milton for the liberty of unlicenced printing, to the Parliament of England. [Self-published pamphlet.]

Misinformation Review. (2020). Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review launch editorial. Harvard Kennedy School.

Mondal, M., & Gupta, M. (2021). Detection and analysis of health misinformation on social media. Computers & Electrical Engineering, 89, 106934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compeleceng.2020.106934

Mosseri, A. (2017, December 18). News Feed FYI: Helping ensure news on Facebook is from trusted sources. Meta Newsroom.

Mueller, R. S. (2019). Report on the investigation into Russian interference in the 2016 Presidential Election (Vols. I–II). U.S. Department of Justice.

Munger, K. (2019). All the news that's fit to click: The economics of clickbait media. Princeton University Press.

N

Narayanan, V., Howard, P. N., Kollanyi, B., & Elswah, M. (2019). Russian involvement and junk news during Brexit. In H. Farrell & H. Schneier (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of cyber security. Oxford University Press.

National Association for Media Literacy Education. (2007). Core principles of media literacy education in the United States. NAMLE. https://namle.net/

Newman, M. E. J. (2006). Modularity and community structure in networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(23), 8577–8582. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0601602103

Newman, M. E. J. (2010). Networks: An introduction. Oxford University Press.

Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175

Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32(2), 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2

Nyhan, B., Reifler, J., Richey, S., & Freed, G. L. (2014). Effective messages in vaccine promotion: A randomized trial. Pediatrics, 133(4), e835–e842. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-2365

O

Ofcom. (2021). Online Nation 2021 report. Office of Communications. https://www.ofcom.org.uk/research-and-data/internet-and-on-demand-research/online-nation

Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. (2010). Merchants of doubt: How a handful of scientists obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming. Bloomsbury Press.

Orwell, G. (1946). Politics and the English language. Horizon, 13(76), 252–265.

P

Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you. Penguin Press.

Pennycook, G., Cannon, T. D., & Rand, D. G. (2018). Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147(12), 1865–1880. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000465

Pennycook, G., Cheyne, J. A., Barr, N., Koehler, D. J., & Fugelsang, J. A. (2015). On the reception and detection of pseudo-profound bullshit. Judgment and Decision Making, 10(6), 549–563.

Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy nudge intervention. Psychological Science, 31(7), 770–780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620939054

Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2019). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition, 188, 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.04.010

Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2021). The psychology of fake news. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 25(5), 388–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.007

Pew Research Center. (2021). News consumption across social media in 2021. Pew Research Center.

Pew Research Center. (2022). Americans' trust in scientists, other groups declines. Pew Research Center.

Pickard, V. (2020). Democracy without journalism? Confronting the misinformation society. Oxford University Press.

Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children (M. Cook, Trans.). International Universities Press.

Popper, K. R. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. Hutchinson. (Original work published 1934 as Logik der Forschung)

Posetti, J., & Matthews, A. (2018). A short guide to the history of "fake news" and disinformation. International Center for Journalists.

R

Rampersad, G., & Althiyabi, T. (2020). Fake news: Acceptance by demographics and culture on social media. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 17(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2019.1686676

Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice. Harvard University Press.

Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. (2022). Reuters Institute Digital News Report 2022. Reuters Institute, University of Oxford.

Roozenbeek, J., Schneider, C. R., Dryhurst, S., Kerr, J., Freeman, A. L. J., Recchia, G., van der Bles, A. M., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Susceptibility to misinformation about COVID-19 around the world. Royal Society Open Science, 7(10), 201199. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.201199

Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2019). Fake news game confers psychological resistance against online misinformation. Palgrave Communications, 5, Article 65. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-019-0279-9

Roozenbeek, J., van der Linden, S., Goldberg, B., Rathje, S., & Lewandowsky, S. (2022). Psychological inoculation improves resilience against misinformation on social media. Science Advances, 8(34), eabo6254. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abo6254

S

Salganik, M. J. (2018). Bit by bit: Social research in the digital age. Princeton University Press. https://www.bitbybitbook.com/

Scheufele, D. A., & Krause, N. M. (2019). Science audiences, misinformation, and fake news. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(16), 7662–7669. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805871115

Schudson, M. (2008). Why democracies need an unlovable press. Polity Press.

Seger, E. (2020). Democratic epistemic norms and the regulation of social media platforms. Disinformation, Manipulation and the Rule of Law, KCL Law Review.

Shannon, C. E. (1948). A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal, 27(3), 379–423. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x

Shao, C., Ciampiconi, L., Flammini, A., Menczer, F., & Mustafaraj, I. (2018). The spread of low-credibility content by social bots. Nature Communications, 9, Article 4787. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018-06914-3

Shu, K., Sliva, A., Wang, S., Tang, J., & Liu, H. (2017). Fake news detection on social media: A data mining perspective. ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter, 19(1), 22–36. https://doi.org/10.1145/3137597.3137600

Simon, H. A. (1955). A behavioral model of rational choice. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 69(1), 99–118. https://doi.org/10.2307/1884852

Sloman, S., & Fernbach, P. (2017). The knowledge illusion: Why we never think alone. Riverhead Books.

Stanovich, K. E. (2011). Rationality and the reflective mind. Oxford University Press.

Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2000). Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(5), 645–665. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00003435

Statista Research Department. (2023). Number of social media users worldwide 2017–2027. Statista.

Sunstein, C. R. (2017). #Republic: Divided democracy in the age of social media. Princeton University Press.

Sunstein, C. R. (2019). Conformity: The power of social influences. New York University Press.

Sunstein, C. R., & Thaler, R. H. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Yale University Press.

T

Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z. W., & Ling, R. (2018). Defining "fake news": A typology of scholarly definitions. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143

Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Yale University Press.

Thorson, E. (2016). Belief echoes: The persistent effects of corrected misinformation. Political Communication, 33(3), 460–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2015.1102187

Toffler, A. (1970). Future shock. Random House.

Tucker, J. A., Guess, A., Barberá, P., Vaccari, C., Siegel, A., Sanovich, S., Stukal, D., & Nyhan, B. (2018). Social media, political polarization, and political disinformation: A review of the scientific literature. Hewlett Foundation.

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124

U

UNESCO. (2013). Global media and information literacy assessment framework: Country readiness and competencies. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

UNESCO. (2016). A teacher's guide on the prevention of violent extremism. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

UNESCO. (2021). Journalism, fake news and disinformation: Handbook for journalism education and training. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. (2019). Report of the Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, on Russian active measures campaigns and interference in the 2016 U.S. Election: Vol. 2. Russia's use of social media with additional views (116th Cong., 1st sess.). Government Publishing Office.

V

Van Aelst, P., Strömbäck, J., Aalberg, T., Esser, F., De Vreese, C., Matthes, J., Hopmann, D., Salgado, S., Hubé, N., Stępińska, A., Papathanassopoulos, S., Berganza, R., Legnante, G., Reinemann, C., Sheafer, T., & Stanyer, J. (2017). Political communication in a high-choice media environment: A challenge for democracy? Annals of the International Communication Association, 41(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2017.1288551

van der Linden, S. (2022). Foolproof: Why misinformation infects our minds and how to build immunity. W. W. Norton.

van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S., & Maibach, E. (2017). Inoculating the public against misinformation about climate change. Global Challenges, 1(2), 1600008. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.201600008

van der Linden, S., Panagopoulos, C., Azevedo, F., & Jost, J. T. (2021). The paranoid style in American politics revisited: An ideological asymmetry in conspiratorial thinking. Political Psychology, 42(1), 23–51. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12681

van der Linden, S., Roozenbeek, J., & Compton, J. (2020). Inoculating against fake news about COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 566790. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566790

Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559

Vraga, E. K., & Bode, L. (2020). Defining misinformation and understanding its bounded nature: Using expertise and evidence for describing misinformation. Political Communication, 37(1), 136–144. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1716500

W

Wardle, C. (2017). Fake news. It's complicated. First Draft, February 16, 2017.

Wardle, C., & Derakhshan, H. (2017). Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policymaking (Report DGI(2017)09). Council of Europe.

Watts, D. J. (2003). Six degrees: The science of a connected age. W. W. Norton.

Watts, D. J., & Dodds, P. S. (2007). Influentials, networks, and public opinion formation. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(4), 441–458. https://doi.org/10.1086/518527

Watts, D. J., & Strogatz, S. H. (1998). Collective dynamics of "small-world" networks. Nature, 393(6684), 440–442. https://doi.org/10.1038/30918

Wendling, M. (2018). Alt-right: From 4chan to the White House. Pluto Press.

Wineburg, S., McGrew, S., Breakstone, J., & Ortega, T. (2016). Evaluating information: The cornerstone of civic online reasoning. Stanford Digital Repository. https://stacks.stanford.edu/object/druid:fv751yt5934

Wineburg, S., & McGrew, S. (2019). Lateral reading and the nature of expertise: Reading less and learning more when evaluating digital information. Teachers College Record, 121(11), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811912101102

Wood, T., & Porter, E. (2019). The elusive backfire effect: Mass attitudes' steadfast factual adherence. Political Behavior, 41(1), 135–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9443-y

World Health Organization. (2020). Novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) situation report – 13. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019/situation-reports

X, Y, Z

Xie, Y., & Tang, L. (2021). Understanding social media-based health information dissemination: The role of content and user characteristics. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23(7), e27197. https://doi.org/10.2196/27197

Yaqub, W., Kakhidze, O., Brockman, M. L., Memon, N., & Patil, S. (2020). Effects of credibility indicators on social media news sharing intent. In Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 1–14). ACM. https://doi.org/10.1145/3313831.3376213

Zarocostas, J. (2020). How to fight an infodemic. The Lancet, 395(10225), 676. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30461-X

Zuckerman, E. (2013). Rewire: Digital cosmopolitans in the age of connection. W. W. Norton.

Zuboff, S. (2019). The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power. PublicAffairs.

Zubiaga, A., Aker, A., Bontcheva, K., Liakata, M., & Procter, R. (2018). Detection and resolution of rumours in social media: A survey. ACM Computing Surveys, 51(2), Article 32. https://doi.org/10.1145/3161603

Note: This bibliography represents sources cited across all 41 chapters of the textbook. When citing individual chapters' primary sources in academic work, readers should consult the in-text citations within each chapter for precise page numbers and direct quotations. All URLs were verified accessible as of the time of writing; persistent access to online sources is not guaranteed.