Chapter 16 Quiz: Scientific Misinformation — Climate, Vaccines, and GMOs
Answer each question, then reveal the explanation. Each question includes the relevant section reference.
Question 1
The "deficit model" of science communication assumes that:
A) Scientists have a deficit of communication skills relative to their knowledge B) Public misunderstanding of science results from a lack of information, and the remedy is providing more accurate information C) Misinformation fills a deficit created when mainstream science fails to engage the public D) Science education in schools has a deficit of resources relative to what is needed
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The deficit model assumes that people hold false scientific beliefs because they lack information — they have a "deficit" of scientific knowledge. The model implies that better science communication, more museum exhibits, and more science education will close the gap. Dan Kahan's cultural cognition research directly challenges this model by demonstrating that scientific literacy and numeracy do not reduce polarization on contested scientific topics and sometimes increase it. *[Section 16.8]*Question 2
Naomi Oreskes and Erik Conway's "Merchants of Doubt" finding most significant for understanding science denial is:
A) That scientists are often poor communicators who cannot compete with industry PR B) That the same small network of scientists, PR firms, and organizations manufactured doubt across multiple scientific controversies from tobacco to climate change C) That scientific journals are systematically biased toward industry-funded research D) That government agencies have repeatedly suppressed valid scientific dissent about contested topics
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The central finding of Oreskes and Conway is that the same network of actors — including Frederick Seitz, S. Fred Singer, the George C. Marshall Institute, and various PR firms — worked to manufacture doubt about scientific consensus on tobacco, acid rain, the ozone hole, and climate change. This is not a coincidence but a strategy: the techniques that worked for tobacco were applied to subsequent scientific controversies with inconvenient policy implications. *[Section 16.2]*Question 3
Cook et al.'s 2013 study finding a 97% scientific consensus on human-caused climate change was based on:
A) A survey of all registered scientists in the US asking their views on climate change B) Systematic analysis of approximately 12,000 peer-reviewed papers on climate change, rating those that expressed a position on the cause of warming C) A meta-analysis of all temperature measurement studies from 1950 to 2013 D) An international poll of member organizations of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** Cook and colleagues systematically examined approximately 12,000 peer-reviewed papers and categorized those that expressed a position on the cause of recent warming. 97% of those expressing a position endorsed the consensus that human activity was the primary cause. This methodology — examining what researchers conclude in their peer-reviewed research, not what they say in public — is the basis for the 97% figure. Multiple independent analyses using different methodologies have found similar results. *[Section 16.3]*Question 4
Which of the following is an example of "Type 2" climate denial (attribution denial)?
A) "Global temperatures haven't risen for the past decade." B) "Warming is happening, but it's caused by solar variability, not carbon dioxide." C) "Climate change is real but won't be as bad as scientists claim." D) "Solving climate change would destroy the economy."
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** Attribution denial (Type 2) accepts that warming is occurring but disputes the cause — attributing it to natural factors rather than human greenhouse gas emissions. Type 1 (trend denial) denies that warming is occurring. Type 3 (impact denial) accepts warming and attribution but disputes the severity of impacts. Type 4 (solution denial) accepts the science but opposes the proposed solutions. *[Section 16.3]*Question 5
VAERS (Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System) data is inappropriate for calculating vaccine-caused death rates because:
A) VAERS data is classified and not available to researchers B) VAERS only records deaths and does not capture other adverse events C) VAERS accepts reports from anyone regardless of whether the vaccine caused the event, and all events following vaccination are included without establishing causation D) VAERS data is collected only at hospitals, missing community-based adverse events
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: C** VAERS is a passive surveillance system that accepts reports from healthcare providers, patients, and others and specifically does not require the reporter to believe the vaccine caused the event. It is designed to be a sensitive signal-detection system that captures potential issues for further investigation. Because deaths occur constantly in the population, many deaths will occur coincidentally near the time of vaccination. VAERS data cannot be interpreted as vaccine-caused deaths without baseline comparison and causation analysis — the precise methodological error made in anti-vaccine social media posts citing VAERS. *[Section 16.4]*Question 6
Andrew Wakefield's 1998 Lancet paper claiming a link between MMR vaccines and autism was retracted because:
A) A subsequent large study found no relationship between MMR and autism B) The General Medical Council found ethical violations and undisclosed financial conflicts of interest; Wakefield had been paid by a law firm seeking to sue vaccine manufacturers C) Wakefield's methodology was found to be statistically flawed but no misconduct was established D) The paper's results could not be replicated in a different laboratory
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The Lancet retracted the paper in 2010 following a General Medical Council investigation that found Wakefield had conducted invasive procedures on children without ethical approval, had undisclosed financial conflicts (he was paid £438,000 by a law firm hoping to sue vaccine manufacturers), and had manipulated data. Wakefield subsequently lost his medical license. While subsequent large studies did also find no relationship between MMR and autism, the specific basis for retraction was the ethical and conflict of interest findings. *[Section 16.4]*Question 7
The claim that "mRNA vaccines alter your DNA" is false because:
A) mRNA is a synthetic molecule, not derived from biological DNA B) mRNA cannot enter the cell nucleus where DNA is stored, cannot be incorporated into DNA, and is rapidly degraded after protein synthesis C) COVID-19 mRNA vaccines use a different type of genetic material that is not related to DNA D) DNA is too large a molecule to be affected by the small mRNA sequences used in vaccines
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The biological mechanism required for mRNA to alter DNA does not exist. mRNA carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes in the cytoplasm; it does not enter the nucleus where DNA resides. It cannot be incorporated into DNA — that would require reverse transcriptase (an enzyme present in some viruses but not in normal human cells in this context) and a chromosomal insertion mechanism. mRNA is also rapidly degraded after it delivers its protein synthesis instructions, typically within days. *[Section 16.4]*Question 8
The 2016 National Academies of Sciences report on GMO safety concluded that:
A) More long-term safety studies are needed before GMO foods can be considered safe B) GMOs present no unique risks to human health compared with conventionally bred crops C) Some GMO crops are safe while others require additional regulatory review D) The evidence is insufficient to conclude either safety or harm
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The 2016 National Academies report, which analyzed hundreds of studies, concluded that currently approved GMO foods present no unique risks to human health. This conclusion is consistent with positions taken by the WHO, the American Medical Association, and major scientific bodies in Europe and elsewhere. This consensus refers to approved GMO foods as they currently exist; each new GMO application must be individually evaluated. *[Section 16.5]*Question 9
The Séralini 2012 paper claiming GMO corn caused tumors in rats was criticized primarily because:
A) The paper was funded by an organic food industry organization B) The rat strain used was prone to spontaneous tumors, sample sizes were too small for statistical reliability, and results were cherry-picked C) Séralini failed to obtain ethical approval for animal experiments D) The journal that published it was not peer-reviewed
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The primary scientific criticisms were methodological: the Sprague-Dawley rat strain naturally develops high rates of tumors regardless of diet, making tumor comparisons between groups extremely difficult without large samples; the sample sizes were too small for statistical reliability; and images were presented selectively to show the most alarming results. The European Food Safety Authority and other bodies reviewed the paper and found the methodology fundamentally inadequate. The paper was retracted by Food and Chemical Toxicology in 2013. *[Section 16.5]*Question 10
The "Wedge Document" was significant in the Kitzmiller v. Dover trial because it:
A) Provided scientific evidence that intelligent design is untestable as a scientific hypothesis B) Revealed that the Discovery Institute's intelligent design program had explicitly religious goals, contradicting its public claims of being a purely scientific enterprise C) Showed that school board members had received funding from Discovery Institute D) Demonstrated that intelligent design textbooks contained factual errors about evolutionary biology
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The Wedge Document explicitly stated the Discovery Institute's goal to "replace materialistic explanations with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions." This directly contradicted the Discovery Institute's public claim that intelligent design was a scientific program with no inherent religious content. Judge Jones cited the Wedge Document in his opinion as evidence of the religious motivation behind the intelligent design curriculum, which helped establish it as a violation of the Establishment Clause. *[Section 16.6]*Question 11
Dan Kahan's cultural cognition research found that among politically conservative Americans:
A) Higher scientific literacy predicts greater acceptance of climate science consensus B) Higher scientific literacy and numeracy actually predict greater polarization on climate science relative to the scientific consensus C) Scientific literacy has no relationship with acceptance or rejection of climate science D) Higher scientific literacy predicts greater rejection of all scientific consensus positions, not just politically contested ones
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** Kahan found a striking result: among politically conservative Americans, greater scientific literacy and numeracy was associated with greater divergence from scientific consensus on climate change. High-numeracy conservatives were better at rationalizing pre-existing views and resisting information that challenged their cultural identity. This is the opposite of the deficit model's prediction that more education/literacy would reduce misinformation acceptance. The effect is specific to politically contested scientific topics, not scientific knowledge in general. *[Section 16.7]*Question 12
"Solution aversion" refers to:
A) The tendency of scientists to avoid proposing policy solutions when discussing scientific findings B) The tendency to reject scientific evidence when the associated policy solutions conflict with one's values C) Public aversion to complex technical solutions proposed by experts D) The media's tendency to focus on problems rather than solutions in science reporting
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** Campbell and Kay demonstrated that people are more likely to reject scientific consensus when they dislike the policy implications. In a notable study, conservatives were more accepting of climate change evidence when the proposed solution was nuclear power than when it was carbon taxes. This suggests that for many people, the rejection of climate science is partly motivated by rejection of the regulatory policy responses associated with it — and that framing the science with different policy responses may influence acceptance. *[Section 16.7]*Question 13
Inoculation theory as applied to scientific misinformation works by:
A) Providing people with comprehensive accurate information before they encounter misinformation B) Warning people about manipulation techniques and providing a "microdose" of the misleading argument before full exposure C) Building general critical thinking skills through education rather than targeting specific false claims D) Creating emotional associations with accurate scientific information to compete with emotional appeals in misinformation
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** Inoculation theory proposes that warning people about manipulation techniques and exposing them to a weakened version of the misleading argument — before full-strength exposure — creates cognitive "antibodies" that recognize and resist the manipulation. The key features are the warning (forewarning of persuasion attempt) and the microdose (experience with the technique in a weakened form). This differs from simply providing accurate information (deficit model) or general critical thinking education. *[Section 16.8]*Question 14
The Kitzmiller v. Dover case concluded that intelligent design:
A) Is a valid scientific hypothesis but should not be taught in public school science classes B) Is not science and that teaching it in public school science classes violates the First Amendment's Establishment Clause C) May be taught as long as equal time is given to evolutionary biology D) Is protected speech and may be discussed in public school classrooms as long as it is presented as a theory, not a fact
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** Judge Jones, appointed by Republican President George W. Bush, ruled that intelligent design is not science — it is a religious proposition — and that teaching it in public school science classes violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The ruling came after a six-week trial including testimony from both scientists and ID proponents. Jones cited the Wedge Document, the religious motivation of the school board members, and the scientific inadequacy of ID's claims. *[Section 16.6]*Question 15
Which of the following statements about the natural immunity vs. vaccine immunity debate is most accurate?
A) Natural immunity is always superior to vaccine immunity; the scientific literature clearly shows vaccines are unnecessary after infection B) Vaccine immunity is always superior to natural immunity; the scientific literature clearly shows natural immunity is ineffective C) The evidence is genuinely complex; natural immunity provides significant protection but acquiring it requires surviving the infection, which carries significant risk especially for serious diseases D) Natural immunity and vaccine immunity are biologically identical and should be treated the same in all policy contexts
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: C** The chapter explicitly notes that the science of natural vs. vaccine immunity is genuinely complex: natural immunity can be comparable to or exceed vaccine-induced immunity in some contexts, but the comparison must account for the cost of acquiring natural immunity through illness, which for COVID-19 involved significant morbidity, mortality, and long COVID risk. The claim that natural immunity is categorically superior and vaccines therefore unnecessary presents a false dichotomy. *[Section 16.4]*Question 16
Frederick Seitz was notable in the Merchants of Doubt narrative because:
A) He was the first scientist to publicly deny the link between tobacco and cancer B) He was a distinguished physicist and former National Academy of Sciences president who was paid by industry to challenge scientific consensus on tobacco and then climate change C) He founded the Heartland Institute specifically to spread climate change denial D) He testified before Congress dozens of times against climate regulations
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** Seitz's significance in the Merchants of Doubt narrative lies precisely in his genuine scientific stature: as a former NAS president and distinguished physicist, his lending his name to industry-funded doubt manufacturing gave those efforts credibility they could not have obtained from less distinguished scientists. He was paid by R.J. Reynolds Tobacco to administer a research program, then later worked through the George C. Marshall Institute to challenge climate science. His case illustrates how genuine scientific credentials can be deployed for non-scientific purposes. *[Section 16.2]*Question 17
The "controversy strategy" used by the tobacco industry involved:
A) Creating genuine scientific controversy by funding research that contradicted established findings B) Creating the impression of scientific controversy in media coverage even when no such controversy existed in the scientific literature C) Convincing journalists that scientific consensus on tobacco harm was a politically motivated claim D) Filing lawsuits against scientists who published research demonstrating tobacco harm
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The controversy strategy exploited journalism's "both sides" norm: if a tobacco-funded scientist could be presented alongside a cancer researcher in a news story, editors and readers would perceive a scientific controversy that did not exist in the scientific literature. This strategy did not require producing credible research — only producing credentialed spokespeople willing to publicly dispute consensus. The same strategy was subsequently applied to climate change, ozone depletion, and acid rain. *[Section 16.2]*Question 18
The precautionary principle is most accurately described as:
A) A scientific principle that requires new technologies to be proven safe before any human testing B) A policy norm that in cases of uncertainty about serious risks, caution should guide decisions; it is a legitimate norm but is sometimes misapplied C) A legal standard requiring companies to disclose all potential risks of new products D) An environmental activist concept rejected by mainstream regulatory science
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The precautionary principle is a legitimate scientific and policy norm with deep roots in environmental regulation and public health. The chapter's discussion of its misapplication in the GMO context notes that it is applied asymmetrically — invoked for GMOs but not for alternatives — rather than arguing that it is illegitimate. The principle appropriately guides decisions where the potential for serious, irreversible harm exists and where scientific uncertainty is genuine. Its misapplication involves invoking it categorically rather than proportionally to actual evidence of risk. *[Section 16.5]*Question 19
Which characteristic of the GMO debate differs most from the climate change and tobacco debates described by Oreskes and Conway?
A) GMO skepticism involves genuine grassroots consumer concern and organic industry interests, not primarily coordinated industry-funded doubt manufacturing B) GMO opponents have more scientific evidence supporting their position than climate or tobacco denialists C) GMO skepticism is more politically polarized than climate denial D) GMO opposition is more concentrated in developing countries than in wealthy democracies
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: A** Unlike tobacco science denial (funded primarily by tobacco companies) and climate denial (funded primarily by fossil fuel interests), GMO skepticism combines genuine grassroots consumer concern, organic industry interests, and environmental organization concerns that are not primarily coordinated by the regulated industry itself. The chapter specifically notes that while organic industry interests play a role, GMO skepticism cannot be reduced to a simple Merchants of Doubt narrative, and that some concerns about corporate control of the seed supply and pesticide use are legitimate policy concerns distinct from fabricated health safety claims. *[Section 16.5]*Question 20
"Irreducible complexity" as articulated by Michael Behe claims that:
A) Some evolutionary transitions would have required too many simultaneous mutations to occur by chance B) Some biological systems could not have evolved through natural selection because removing any component would make them non-functional C) The complexity of biological systems is irreducible to chemistry and physics alone D) Natural selection can only produce complexity in irreversible, one-directional changes
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** Behe's irreducible complexity argument, developed in "Darwin's Black Box," claims that some biological systems (he cited the bacterial flagellum and the blood clotting cascade as examples) are composed of multiple interdependent parts such that removing any one part destroys function. He argued that such systems could not have evolved through natural selection because intermediate forms with fewer parts would be non-functional. This argument was addressed in detail in the Kitzmiller trial and rejected by evolutionary biologists who demonstrated that the cited systems could be assembled from components with other functions. *[Section 16.6]*Question 21
The "fact + fallacy" correction structure is more effective than simple correction because:
A) It uses more words, which gives the reader more time to process the accurate information B) It preempts motivated use of the false claim by explaining why it seems plausible, then providing the accurate fact C) It provides the emotional engagement necessary to compete with emotionally compelling misinformation D) It follows the structure of persuasive essays, which audiences are trained to find credible
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The fact + fallacy structure (present accurate fact → explain the fallacy in the false claim → reinforce accurate fact) is more effective because it does not leave the false claim's rhetorical structure intact. Simple correction ("X is false") can backfire if it repeats the false claim without explaining why it seemed compelling. By explaining the fallacy, the correction makes the false claim less usable — recipients understand not just that the claim is false but why it was structured to mislead. This approach, developed by Ullrich Ecker and colleagues, is now widely recommended in science communication. *[Section 16.8]*Question 22
Cultural cognition theory differs from simple political bias explanations of science denial because:
A) Cultural cognition theory focuses on partisan political identification while simple bias explanations focus on cultural identity B) Cultural cognition theory identifies the mechanism (identity-protective cognition) and predicts that the effect will be strongest among people with greater cognitive capacity, not lesser C) Cultural cognition theory predicts that science denial is most common among uneducated populations, while simple bias explanations apply to all education levels D) Cultural cognition theory is specific to US political culture while simple bias explanations apply globally
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** Cultural cognition theory's distinctive contribution is its mechanism: identity-protective cognition leads people to apply their cognitive capacity to rationalizing identity-consistent positions rather than to reaching accurate conclusions. This predicts — counterintuitively — that the effect is strongest among people with greater cognitive capacity, because they are better at motivated reasoning. Simple "political bias" explanations do not make this prediction. Kahan's empirical finding that high-numeracy conservatives show greater divergence from climate consensus (not less) is the key evidence distinguishing cultural cognition from simpler accounts. *[Section 16.7]*Question 23
The main difference between scientific consensus at the "frontier" and "established" science is:
A) Frontier science is published in better journals than established science B) Frontier science involves individual studies at the edge of current knowledge with high uncertainty; established science involves findings replicated many times through multiple independent methods C) Frontier science is theoretical while established science is empirical D) Frontier science is conducted by academic researchers while established science is validated by government agencies
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The distinction is fundamental for understanding scientific misinformation. Science at the frontier involves cutting-edge research where individual studies may be overturned, where uncertainty is high, and where controversy is normal and healthy. Established science refers to findings that have been independently replicated by multiple research groups using multiple methods, tested for decades, and integrated into the broader theoretical framework of the field. Climate change, vaccine safety, evolution, and GMO safety are all established science, not frontier science — even though research at the frontier of each continues and generates headline-worthy individual studies. *[Section 16.1]*Question 24
The most effective science communication approach for politically contested scientific topics, based on current research, involves:
A) Providing more detailed technical information to help audiences understand the science B) Debating science denialists publicly to demonstrate the weakness of their arguments C) Using trusted messengers, value-consistent framing, narrative approaches, and inoculation, rather than simply providing more information D) Focusing exclusively on children through school education, since adults with committed views are beyond reach
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: C** The research literature consistently finds that the deficit model — simply providing more information — fails for committed denialists in politically contested domains. More effective approaches identified in the chapter include: using trusted messengers within the target community (physicians for vaccine information, military leaders for climate), framing in terms consistent with the audience's values (national security framing for conservative climate audiences), using narrative over statistics, applying the fact + fallacy correction structure, and pre-bunkng through inoculation. No approach works for everyone; layered strategies are recommended. *[Section 16.8]*Question 25
ExxonMobil's internal research in the 1970s and 80s is significant in the climate misinformation story because:
A) It produced the first accurate climate models that predicted current warming B) It showed that ExxonMobil scientists understood that fossil fuel combustion would cause significant warming, while the company simultaneously funded public campaigns manufacturing doubt about climate science C) It revealed that ExxonMobil had lobbied the government to suppress early EPA climate research D) It demonstrated that private sector climate research was more advanced than academic research at the time
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The significance of "Exxon knew" — the revealed history of ExxonMobil's internal climate research — is the gap between what the company's own scientists found and what the company publicly communicated. ExxonMobil's internal research reached conclusions consistent with the mainstream scientific consensus on climate change, while the company was funding external operations to manufacture doubt about that same consensus. This gap has been the basis for attorney general investigations for potential fraud, and illustrates the deliberate nature of the tobacco strategy's application to climate change. *[Section 16.2]*Question 26
The "Bad News" game and related prebunking games operate on what psychological principle?
A) Catharsis — experiencing the creation of misinformation releases frustration with deceptive media B) Inoculation — experiencing manipulation techniques firsthand creates resistance to them C) Social proof — seeing others resist misinformation creates norms of skepticism D) Cognitive load reduction — games reduce the mental effort required to evaluate claims
Reveal Answer
**Correct Answer: B** The Bad News game, Harmony Square, Go Viral, and related "prebunking" games operate on inoculation theory principles: by putting players in the position of creating misinformation themselves, they experience the manipulation techniques firsthand in a weakened, controlled context. This active engagement with the techniques creates cognitive "antibodies" that recognize those techniques when encountered in the wild. The game format also provides immediate feedback and scales well through digital distribution. Research has validated the approach in multiple studies. *[Section 16.8]*Question 27
Why does the chapter characterize "manufactured doubt" as more damaging than straightforward false claims?
A) Manufactured doubt is harder to debunk because it does not make specific verifiable claims B) Manufactured doubt affects people who would otherwise be receptive to accurate information by creating the impression that scientific controversy exists when it doesn't C) Manufactured doubt is produced by credentialed scientists, giving it more media credibility than anonymous false claims D) Both A and C, but not B