Chapter 36 Quiz: Education-Based Interventions and Media Literacy Programs

Instructions: Answer each question, then click the triangle to reveal the correct answer and explanation.

Question 1. The 2016 Stanford study "Evaluating Information: The Cornerstone of Civic Online Reasoning" found that:

A) College students significantly outperform middle school students at evaluating online information B) Students across all levels performed poorly at evaluating the credibility of online content C) Media literacy curricula in US schools were broadly effective at developing critical thinking D) Social media use was positively correlated with better source evaluation skills

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Wineburg and colleagues at Stanford found that students across all levels — middle school, high school, and college — performed poorly at evaluating the credibility of online content. They frequently mistook sponsored content for news, believed viral social media posts without verification, and could not reliably distinguish mainstream news organizations from fringe websites. The study specifically noted that even college students at selective institutions performed poorly. This finding catalyzed significant policy attention to media literacy education and motivated the development of the lateral reading approach as an alternative to traditional source evaluation instruction.

Question 2. The Jeong, Cho, and Hwang (2012) meta-analysis of media literacy education found a mean effect size of approximately:

A) d = 0.10 (negligible) B) d = 0.42 (small to medium) C) d = 0.85 (large) D) d = 1.20 (very large)

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** The meta-analysis, which synthesized 51 studies of media literacy education, found a mean effect size of d = 0.42, placing it in the small-to-medium range by Cohen's benchmarks. This finding is broadly consistent with the prebunking literature (Chapter 35) and suggests that well-designed media literacy education produces meaningful improvements. However, the meta-analysis also found that more rigorous studies yielded smaller effect sizes, suggesting that the true effect may be closer to the lower end of the range. Effect sizes were larger for knowledge outcomes than for behavioral outcomes.

Question 3. "Lateral reading," as described by Wineburg and colleagues, involves:

A) Reading multiple pages within a website to build a comprehensive understanding of its content B) Reading the same content multiple times at spaced intervals to improve retention C) Immediately leaving an unfamiliar site and searching for external information about it D) Comparing two news articles about the same event side by side

Show Answer **Correct Answer: C** Lateral reading means immediately leaving a site — before reading its content deeply — and searching for what others say about the site and its credibility. This contrasts with "vertical reading," which involves reading deeply within a site and using internal cues (author credentials, website design, citations) to evaluate credibility. Research by Wineburg's Stanford team found that professional fact-checkers naturally use lateral reading, while most students use vertical reading. The key insight is that most misinformation websites look credible from the inside, making internal cues unreliable; external reputation is far more informative.

Question 4. In the SIFT method for information evaluation, what does the "S" represent?

A) Search — immediately search for the source of the claim B) Stop — pause before sharing or acting on the information C) Source — investigate the source before reading the content D) Skeptic — maintain a skeptical stance toward all online information

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** In the SIFT method (developed by Mike Caulfield), "S" stands for Stop — pausing before sharing, liking, or acting on information. The rationale is that many sharing behaviors are automatic and habitual, driven by emotional reactions to content rather than careful evaluation. Stopping disrupts this automaticity and creates a moment of deliberate processing. The other letters stand for Investigate the source, Find better coverage, and Trace claims, quotes, and media back to their original context.

Question 5. The "accuracy prompt" intervention, developed by Pennycook and Rand, works primarily by:

A) Teaching users specific techniques for identifying misinformation B) Interrupting automatic sharing behavior by asking users to consider accuracy before sharing C) Providing users with a list of approved reliable news sources D) Delivering personalized fact-checks to users immediately after they encounter misinformation

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** The accuracy prompt works by interrupting automatic, habitual sharing behavior and activating deliberate analytical thinking. The intervention is extremely simple: before sharing or seeing certain content, users are asked something like "How accurate is this headline?" This brief prompt shifts attention from the emotional engagement that drives sharing to the epistemic evaluation of accuracy. Research has found that this simple intervention significantly increases the accuracy of content users choose to share, both in laboratory and field settings.

Question 6. Research comparing "one-shot" library instruction sessions to "embedded" library instruction consistently finds that:

A) One-shot sessions are equally effective if they are sufficiently long B) Embedded instruction produces significantly larger and more durable effects C) Self-paced online modules outperform both formats D) There is no significant difference between the two formats

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Research on library instruction consistently finds that embedded instruction — in which librarians work with faculty to integrate information literacy into the regular course structure across multiple sessions — produces larger and more durable effects than one-shot sessions. The advantage of embedded instruction is that it provides multiple practice opportunities, direct connection to course assignments, and repeated engagement with information literacy concepts across the semester. One-shot sessions provide only a single learning opportunity with no subsequent reinforcement.

Question 7. The primary theoretical advantage of education-based misinformation interventions over prebunking or fact-checking is:

A) Education is always more cost-effective per person reached B) Education produces general, transferable skills rather than protection against specific claims or techniques C) Education works more quickly than other interventions D) Education is politically less controversial than other interventions

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** The primary theoretical advantage of education is generalization: education aims to produce general-purpose competencies (source evaluation skills, critical thinking skills, understanding of how journalism and science work) that can be applied across any information context, domain, or topic. Fact-checking addresses specific false claims (without providing general skills), and prebunking addresses specific manipulation techniques (with broader but still limited transfer). Education, in principle, provides skills that can be deployed against any current or future misinformation without needing to be updated for each new false claim.

Question 8. "Transfer" in the context of media literacy education refers to:

A) The process of moving a student from one grade level to another B) The application of skills learned in an instructional context to performance in real-world contexts C) The sharing of media literacy resources between schools D) The process of adapting curricula from one country to another

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Transfer is the application of skills learned in an instructional context to performance in a different context — in this case, the application of media literacy skills developed through classroom instruction to real-world information-seeking and evaluation tasks. Transfer is described as "the central challenge" for media literacy education because research consistently shows that skills learned in controlled instructional settings do not automatically transfer to naturalistic settings. Instructional design features that promote transfer include varied practice, explicit comparison between examples, metacognitive instruction, and practice with content that differs from the training content.

Question 9. Finland's comprehensive media literacy curriculum is distinctive because it:

A) Is delivered as a single mandatory course in 10th grade B) Focuses exclusively on digital media and social media platforms C) Integrates media literacy across all school subjects and all grade levels rather than as a standalone subject D) Is taught primarily by external media professionals rather than classroom teachers

Show Answer **Correct Answer: C** Finland's approach treats media literacy not as a separate subject but as a cross-curricular competency developed across all school subjects and all grade levels — comparable to how reading or mathematical literacy is developed across the entire curriculum rather than only in dedicated reading or math classes. This approach ensures that media literacy skills are practiced in multiple contexts (science, history, literature, civic education, etc.), which promotes the varied practice and transfer that make skills durable and generalizable.

Question 10. The iCivics platform, founded by Sandra Day O'Connor, uses primarily:

A) Lecture-based videos and reading assignments B) Peer-to-peer mentoring between older and younger students C) Interactive civics games to teach democratic institutions and political processes D) Standardized testing with automated feedback

Show Answer **Correct Answer: C** iCivics uses interactive, game-based learning to teach students about democratic institutions, political processes, and civic participation. The platform was founded by retired Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor with the goal of engaging students in civics education through an interactive format. Research has found that engagement with iCivics improves civic knowledge, which is relevant to media literacy because civic knowledge provides the factual foundation for detecting implausible claims about political institutions and processes.

Question 11. Research on MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) for media literacy finds that:

A) Completion rates are very high, making MOOCs highly effective at reaching large populations B) MOOC learners show significant improvements, but completion rates are very low, limiting overall reach C) MOOCs are equally effective as in-person instruction for media literacy skill development D) MOOCs are ineffective for media literacy because they cannot provide interactive feedback

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Research on MOOCs consistently finds that learners who complete a course show meaningful improvements in knowledge and skills. However, completion rates for most MOOCs are very low — often under 10% of enrolled learners — which means that the actual reach of MOOCs to the general population is much more limited than enrollment numbers suggest. The selection bias created by low completion rates (completers are more motivated and educated than typical learners) also limits the generalizability of MOOC effectiveness findings to the general population.

Question 12. "Spaced practice" refers to:

A) Allowing students to choose their own pace of learning B) Distributing practice across time rather than massing it in a single session C) Maintaining physical distance between students during practice activities D) Using different types of media (video, text, audio) across different practice sessions

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Spaced practice (also called distributed practice) is the learning science principle of distributing practice across multiple sessions separated by time intervals, rather than concentrating all practice in a single session (massed practice). Research consistently shows that spaced practice produces better long-term retention than massed practice, even when total practice time is the same. For media literacy, spaced practice means returning to key concepts repeatedly across a curriculum rather than concentrating all media literacy instruction in a single unit.

Question 13. The "trusted messenger" model in community-based interventions rests primarily on the finding that:

A) Professional credibility (academic degrees, expert titles) is the strongest predictor of persuasiveness B) Messages from trusted community members are more persuasive than messages from institutional sources C) Information delivered digitally is more persuasive than information delivered in person D) Messages repeated multiple times are more persuasive regardless of source

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** The trusted messenger model rests on extensive research showing that information from trusted community members — people with established social relationships within a community — is more persuasive than the same information from institutional or outside expert sources, particularly in communities with low institutional trust. The effectiveness of trusted messengers depends on the pre-existing trust relationship, which gives the message credibility that cannot be manufactured by institutional authority or professional credentials alone.

Question 14. The News Literacy Project's Checkology platform is primarily designed for:

A) College students in introductory journalism courses B) Adult professionals in media-related industries C) Middle and high school students D) Elementary school children aged 6-10

Show Answer **Correct Answer: C** Checkology is designed for middle and high school students, providing self-paced web-based lessons covering source evaluation, fact-checking, bias identification, and how journalism works. The News Literacy Project, which developed Checkology, focuses on this age range partly because it coincides with the period when young people are becoming independent news consumers and forming lasting habits around information evaluation. As of the mid-2020s, Checkology was one of the most widely adopted K-12 media literacy platforms in the United States.

Question 15. The "interleaving" principle in learning science suggests that media literacy instruction should:

A) Intersperse media literacy lessons with unrelated subjects to reduce fatigue B) Mix different types of problems within a practice session rather than grouping them by type C) Alternate between individual and collaborative learning activities D) Spread instruction across different technology platforms

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Interleaving refers to mixing different types of problems or content types within a practice session, rather than blocking by type (completing all examples of one type before moving to another). Research consistently shows that interleaved practice produces better discrimination and transfer than blocked practice, even though blocked practice tends to feel easier during learning. For media literacy, interleaving would mean presenting a mix of reliable and unreliable content within a single practice session, rather than working through all the reliable examples and then all the unreliable ones separately.

Question 16. Jeong et al.'s meta-analysis found that media literacy intervention effect sizes were larger for:

A) Adult learners compared to children B) Knowledge outcomes compared to behavioral outcomes C) Single-session interventions compared to multi-session interventions D) Programs delivered by researchers compared to classroom teachers

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** The Jeong et al. meta-analysis found that effect sizes were larger for knowledge outcomes (what participants know about media literacy) than for behavioral outcomes (what participants actually do when evaluating media). This pattern is common across educational research and reflects the fact that knowledge tests are more proximal to instruction and more sensitive to short-term learning, while behavioral outcomes require transfer of learning to new contexts and are more difficult to measure. The gap between knowledge and behavioral outcomes is a central challenge for media literacy education.

Question 17. "Retrieval practice" (also called the testing effect) refers to:

A) The use of pre-tests to diagnose students' existing knowledge before instruction B) The practice of having students recall information from memory, which produces better long-term retention than re-reading C) The technique of providing students with sample exam questions before a high-stakes test D) The process of retrieving previously used media examples from a digital archive

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Retrieval practice, or the testing effect, is the well-documented finding that having learners retrieve information from memory (through tests, quizzes, flashcards, or other recall activities) produces significantly better long-term retention than re-reading or re-studying the same material. The mechanism appears to involve the effortful reconstruction of memory traces during retrieval, which strengthens and consolidates the memories. For media literacy, retrieval practice suggests that regular low-stakes quizzing, practice source evaluation tasks, and recall exercises should be integrated throughout instruction rather than reserved for summative assessment.

Question 18. What distinguishes "embedded" information literacy instruction from traditional "across the curriculum" approaches?

A) Embedded instruction is delivered online while across-the-curriculum instruction is delivered in person B) Embedded instruction involves librarians or media literacy specialists working directly with faculty to integrate skills into specific course assignments and activities C) Embedded instruction is shorter and more intensive than across-the-curriculum instruction D) Embedded instruction focuses only on digital information while across-the-curriculum includes all media types

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Embedded instruction specifically involves collaboration between information literacy specialists (typically librarians or media literacy educators) and subject faculty to integrate information literacy skills into the regular structure of specific courses, connected to actual course assignments. This is distinct from "across the curriculum" approaches, which may rely on each faculty member to independently address information literacy within their courses without specialized collaboration or dedicated instruction. Embedded instruction is generally more structured, more directly connected to student assignments, and more likely to include multiple touchpoints within a single course.

Question 19. The ACRL Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education describes information literacy through:

A) A set of 12 specific skills to be assessed at graduation B) A series of "frames" or ways of understanding knowledge creation and the information environment C) A grading rubric for evaluating source citations in student papers D) A sequence of five standardized assessments delivered across four years

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** The ACRL Framework, adopted in 2016, describes information literacy through six "frames" — conceptual clusters that represent different ways of understanding how information is created, used, and valued. The frames (Authority Is Constructed and Contextual, Information Creation as a Process, Information Has Value, Research as Inquiry, Searching as Strategic Exploration, and Scholarship as Conversation) are designed to be taught through disciplinary examples and to develop deep, transferable understanding rather than a checklist of technical skills. This frames-based approach is pedagogically distinct from the skills-based approach of the previous standards.

Question 20. A field experiment by Pennycook and Rand testing accuracy prompts on Twitter found that:

A) The prompts had no effect on real-world sharing behavior, suggesting laboratory effects do not generalize B) Users who received accuracy prompts subsequently shared content that was rated as more accurate by independent evaluators C) The prompts increased sharing of all content, both accurate and inaccurate, by increasing engagement D) Effects were only found for politically conservative users but not for liberals

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** In their field experiment on Twitter, Pennycook and Rand found that users who received accuracy prompts (being asked to consider the accuracy of a headline before sharing) subsequently shared content that was rated as more accurate by independent evaluators, compared to control users who did not receive prompts. This finding is significant because it demonstrates that accuracy prompts produce real behavioral change in a naturalistic setting, not just attitude change in laboratory conditions. The finding supports the scalability of the accuracy prompt approach for platform-level deployment.

Question 21. The Illinois Media Literacy Act (2021) requires media literacy education to be taught specifically in:

A) Elementary school social studies classes B) High school English classes C) All K-12 subjects as a cross-curricular competency D) Required standalone media literacy courses at all grade levels

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Illinois's Media Literacy Act (2021) requires that media literacy be taught in high school English classes. This specific integration with English Language Arts reflects both the natural connections between English instruction (reading, writing, argument analysis) and media literacy skills, and the political compromise necessary to pass the legislation. Some advocates for more comprehensive media literacy education have noted that limiting the requirement to a single subject area may limit its reach and effectiveness compared to cross-curricular approaches like Finland's.

Question 22. Research on peer-to-peer education models for media literacy suggests that:

A) Peer educators are never as effective as professional educators because they lack formal training B) Peer educators are often more effective than outside experts with adolescent populations because of trust and shared cultural frames C) Peer education only works in online settings, not face-to-face D) Peer education is effective only for technical skills, not for critical thinking

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Research on peer education, adapted from health behavior change models, finds that peer educators are often more effective than outside experts, particularly with adolescent populations. The advantage derives from peer relationships — trust, social modeling, and shared cultural frames that make the peer educator's message more credible and the learning context more psychologically safe. Peer educators can communicate in the idiom of the community, reference shared experiences, and model the skills they are teaching in ways that professional educators cannot always achieve.

Question 23. The "Mind Over Media" platform, developed by Renee Hobbs, focuses primarily on:

A) Teaching students to create their own media content as a form of critical literacy B) Teaching students to identify propaganda and persuasion techniques in advertising and media C) Comparing news coverage across international news sources D) Teaching students to evaluate the credibility of social media influencers

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Mind Over Media focuses specifically on identifying propaganda and persuasion techniques — analyzing real examples of advertising, political messaging, and social media content to develop skills in recognizing emotional appeals, selective framing, and other persuasive techniques. The platform's emphasis on analyzing real, current media examples (rather than constructed or hypothetical examples) is designed to improve transfer to real-world media evaluation. Research evaluations have found effect sizes in the range of d = 0.30 to d = 0.45 in controlled studies.

Question 24. The "elaborative interrogation" technique in learning science asks students to:

A) Write extended reflections on their learning at the end of each lesson B) Explain why something is true or what makes a source credible, rather than just identifying that it is C) Ask their own questions during instruction rather than waiting to answer teacher questions D) Evaluate each other's work through structured peer feedback protocols

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** Elaborative interrogation is a learning technique in which learners are prompted to explain why a fact is true or why a source is credible — generating elaborations that connect new information to prior knowledge. This produces deeper processing and better transfer than simply identifying or labeling information. In media literacy contexts, elaborative interrogation might involve asking students not just "Is this source credible?" but "Why is this source more credible than that one? What specific features distinguish them?" The why questions require deeper engagement with the distinguishing features of reliable vs. unreliable information.

Question 25. Civic education reduces misinformation susceptibility primarily by:

A) Increasing analytical reasoning ability generally B) Building a knowledge base that serves as an error-detection resource when false claims are implausible C) Reducing partisan identity and motivated reasoning D) Increasing trust in institutional sources like government and mainstream media

Show Answer **Correct Answer: B** The primary mechanism by which civic knowledge reduces misinformation susceptibility is the provision of a factual knowledge base that allows people to detect when specific claims are implausible. A citizen who knows that the Supreme Court has nine members can immediately recognize as false a story claiming the Court ruled 10-3; a citizen who knows how the legislative process works can recognize implausible claims about how laws are passed. This "knowledge base" effect is distinct from general analytical reasoning ability and does not require the ability to reason about unfamiliar domains. Importantly, it does not eliminate motivated reasoning — even civically knowledgeable people can exhibit partisan bias — but it provides a specific factual resource for detecting specific factual errors.

End of Chapter 36 Quiz